Aim: To assess the behavioral effects of receiving personal genetic information, using apoE genotypes as a tool for promoting lifestyle changes. apoE was chosen because it has a significant impact on lipid metabolism and cholesterol absorption, both factors in cardiovascular disease. Methods: This study was a 1-year intervention study of healthy adults aged 20-67 years (n = 107). Their behavioral changes were measured by diet (e.g., fat quality, as well as consumption of vegetables, berries, fruits, and fatty and sugary foods), alcohol consumption, and exercise. Health and taste attitudes were assessed with the Health and Taste Attitude Scales (HTAS). The measurements were performed 4 times: at baseline (T0), as well as 10 weeks (T1), 6 months (T2), and 12 months after baseline (T3). These behavioral effects were assessed for three groups: a high-risk (Ɛ4+; n = 16), a low-risk (Ɛ4-; n = 35), and a control group (n = 56). Results: Personal genetic information affected health behavior. Dietary fat quality improved more in the Ɛ4+ group than in the Ɛ4- and control groups after personal, genotype-based health advice. This change differed significantly between the Ɛ4+ and the control group (p < 0.05), but only for a short time. Conclusion: Personal genetic information, based on apoE, may affect dietary fat quality. More research is required to determine how to utilize genotype-based health information and how to efficiently achieve long-term changes in the prevention of lifestyle-related diseases.

Common health recommendations often incite very little public response, as people instead require individualized information. The purpose of this study was to assess the psychological effects of personal genetic information, provided by different apoE genotypes, as a tool to promote lifestyle changes. This study was a one-year intervention study using healthy adults, aged 20-67 years (n = 107). Their experiences of state anxiety, threat and stage of change were measured three times over a 12 months period. These psychological experiences were assessed, during the genetic information gathering, for three groups: a high-risk group (Ɛ4+, n = 16); a low-risk group (Ɛ4-, n = 35); and a control group (n = 56). The psychological effects of personal genetic risk information were shown to be short-term, although the levels of state anxiety and threat experiences in the high-risk group both remained at a slightly higher level than in the baseline. Threat experiences differed almost significantly (alpha = 0.017) between the Ɛ4+ and Ɛ4- groups (p = 0.034). Information on the apoE genotype impacted the experience of cardiovascular threat; this effect was most intense immediately after genetic feedback was received. However, fears of threat and anxiety may not be an obstacle for using gene information to motivate healthy, stable adults towards making lifestyle changes. Further studies should thus focus on how to utilize genetic screening in prevention of lifestyle-related diseases.

Purpose – This study aims to explore how certain consumer characteristics (dieting status, health motives and food values) together with products carrying ambivalent health and taste cues (light foods, convenience foods, “functional candies”) shape whether and why health and taste attributes are perceived as inclusive (“healthy is tasty” and “unhealthy is untasty”) or exclusive (“healthy is untasty” and “unhealthy is tasty”). Design/methodology/approach – A qualitative methodology not yet applied in examining consumers’ healthiness and tastiness perceptions of food was employed. It included gathering three separate data sets through both personal and group interviews (N = 40). Findings – Consumers’ dieting status, health motives and food values shape the perception of inclusivity and exclusivity of health and taste of light, convenience and candy products. Second, there are multiple sources for these perceptions including product type, ingredients, level of processing and marketing cues. These factors interact to produce a unique consumer understanding of the relationship between health and taste for each single food product. Practical implications – To ensure optimal consumer response, food companies and health educators need to understand how different target groups form their inclusive/exclusive perceptions of health and taste for various foods. Originality/value – The majority of pre-existing food consumption research supports imply that a good taste and a high degree of healthiness are incompatible with each other. The findings challenge this view. It appears that it is the “unhealthy is untasty” and “healthy is tasty” perceptions that predominate in certain consumer groups. A novel conceptual framework for understanding the ambivalence of health and taste perceptions in food consumption is offered.

Aim: There is increasing demand for individualized health advice. The aim of this study was to assess the effects on cardiovascular risk markers of receiving personal genetic health information, using apoE genotypes as a tool for promoting lifestyle changes. ApoE was chosen because it had a significant impact on lipid metabolism and cholesterol absorption, all factors for CVD. Methods: This study was a one-year explanatory intervention study for healthy adults, aged between 20 -67 years old (n = 106). Their clinical markers (serum lipids, blood glucose, blood pressure, Body Mass Index, body fat percentage and waist circumference) were measured three times during the intervention. The clinical effects were assessed for three groups: a high risk group (Ɛ4+, n = 16); a low-risk group (Ɛ4−, n = 35); and a control group (n = 55). Results: The triglyceride values and waist circumference lowered more in Ɛ4+ compared with the control group (p < 0.05; alpha value 0.005) during the intervention. Conclusion: The personal genetic information, based on apoE, may have positive effects on cardiovascular risk markers (e.g., improvement in triglyceride values). The individual health information, based on genotyping could be a potential option in the prevention of CVD. More research is required on how to utilize genotype-based health information in the prevention of lifestyle-related diseases.

<b><i>Aim:</i></b> This observational follow-up study was designed to assess the long-term behavioural and clinical effects of receiving personal genetic risk information. The information disclosed was the carrier status of the apolipoprotein E (<i>APOE</i>)<i></i>alleles, which differentially contribute to the genetic risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and Alzheimer’s disease. <b><i>Methods:</i></b> This study forms a continuum with a previous 1-year intervention (2010–2011) monitoring the effects of disclosing the carrier status of the <i>APOE ε4</i>risk allele. The follow-up measurements, performed 5.5 years post-intervention, included clinical measurements (blood values and anthropomorphic parameters) and questionnaires (psychological and behavioural factors). The participants were healthy adult volunteers, aged 26–73 years (<i>n</i> = 70) who had participated in the previous intervention, and received their <i>APOE</i> allele status either at the beginning (former test group) or the end of the intervention (former control group). <b><i>Results:</i></b> Personal genetic risk information resulted in a moderate health-conscious change in diet and had a slight positive long-term effect on clinical factors, particularly the serum lipids. These improvements were subsequent to the disclosure of genetic information and occurred mainly in the <i>APOE ε4</i>-positive members of the former control group, that is, those who were at increased genetic risk for CVD but had not been informed of their status before the end of the intervention. In contrast, changes in the values and health behaviour of the <i>APOE ε4</i>-positive individuals in the former test group, who had already changed their health behaviour during the previous intervention as a result of being informed of their carrier status, varied more: some continued to improve, some remained at their previously improved level, and some relapsed slightly. Both groups had nonetheless displayed an improvement immediately subsequent to the disclosure of their personal genetic risk. <b><i>Conclusion:</i></b> Receiving information on increased personal genetic risk (carrier status of <i>APOE ε4</i>)<i></i>for CVD provided the motivation for improvements in health behaviour. The resulting changes, while modest, in most cases remained visible even after a number of years.

Background The APOE ε4 allele is associated with higher risks of cardiovascular diseases and Alzheimer disease than ε3 and ε2. Objectives We studied the effectiveness of dietary and lifestyle guidance and personal genetic risk information [ε4 carrier (ε4+); ε4 noncarrier (ε4−)] as motivators for a healthier lifestyle. Methods A total of 188 healthy Finnish volunteers (82.4% women; mean ± SD age: 51.0 ± 5.6 y; BMI: 26.0 ± 3.6 kg/m2; total cholesterol: 5.2 ± 0.9 mmol/L) participated in our randomized intervention study. The participants were genotyped for APOE and divided into intervention (INT; INTε4+, n = 33; INTε4−, n = 57) and control groups (CTRL; CTRLε4+, n = 36; CTRLε4−, n = 62). Blood samples, measured observations, and questionnaire data were obtained at baseline and at 1 and 1.5 y. INT participants received their ε4 carrier status at baseline. Monthly Internet-based guidance based on the Finnish Dietary guidelines was provided for all. Results The proportion of SFAs in plasma over time fluctuated less in INTε4+ than in the other groups (P-interaction &lt; 0.05; primary outcome). The lifestyle guidance increased vegetable consumption from 3.5 to 3.6 portions/d, improved the dietary fat quality score by 5.3%, increased the plasma n–3 (ω-3) FA proportion by 7.3%, and decreased the consumption of high-fat/high-sugar foods from 7.3 to 6.5 portions/wk and total- and LDL-cholesterol concentrations by 4.3% and 6.1%, respectively, in the entire participant population (P &lt; 0.05; secondary outcome). Compared with the ε4− participants, ε4+ participants had 2.4% higher plasma n–6 (ω-6) FA, lower C-peptide (3.9 compared with 4.2 nmol/L × h) and sensitive C-reactive protein values, and decreased plasma malondialdehyde concentrations over time (P &lt; 0.05; secondary outcome). Conclusions Lifestyle guidance given to healthy Finnish participants yielded small but beneficial changes. The INTε4+ group did not seem markedly more responsive to the guidance than the other groups. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03794141.

In the original version of this article, the description of the recruitment process of the study subjects was somewhat abridged due to limited space, and also concentrated only on the phases and issues crucial to this article. In order to clarify the process further, the phases are now described here in an addendum to this publication in their entirety:The original article begins the description of the study procedure by stating that the Bfirst contact was made by telephone, when participants were asked whether they were willing to participate in the study…^but the steps in the recruitment process preceding the first personal contact with the potential participants in the form of a telephone call and the source of the telephone number were not specified. population in the Finnish region of Southern Ostrobothnia. Within this study, they had filled in a questionnaire dealing with health behavioural issues in which they could express their desire to participate in further research in the area by leaving their contact details (email and postage address, and a telephone number). 260 of those who had indicated their interest and willingness to be involved in further studies were approached by sending them a recruitment letter describing the planned study on the effect of the APOE gene variation on cholesterol values, and informing the recipients to expect a subsequent telephone call. 36 extra participants, not part of the initial questionnaire population, contacted the research team in response to a newspaper advertisement for the new study, after which they were sent the same letter. The recruitment letter, its wording approved by the Research Ethical Board, explained the function and allelic variation of the APOE gene in clear, understandable Finnish. It also contained the information that the ε4 variant of the gene increases a person's risk not only for cardiovascular diseases (CVD) but also for Alzheimer's disease (AD, one copy yielding an approximately 3-4-fold increase in risk, two copies 10-15-fold increase in risk). It was also explained that carrying the ε4 variant does not automatically mean the person is invariably going to have Alzheimer's disease, and that the pathogenic effects of APOE can, at least to some extent, be counteracted by adopting a healthy diet and increasing physical exercise. The communications concerning AD were not elaborated upon in the original article reporting on the results of the study as its research question focussed on the connection of APOE and CVD, not AD. However, the increased risk of AD for the APOE ε4 carriers was communicated to the potential participants in order to ensure that they were properly informed of the potential implications of the gene test results.As described in the original article, during the subsequent telephone call the volunteers were interviewed on health issues and their willingness to participate in this new study. They were also asked whether they had received the recruitment letter and read and understood the contents, particularly the fact that th...

Introduction: APOE ɛ4 allele predisposes to high cholesterol and increases the risk for lifestyle-related diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and cardiovascular diseases (CVD). The aim of this study was to analyse interrelationships of APOE genotypes with lipid metabolism and lifestyle factors in middle-aged Finns among whom the CVD risk factors are common. Methods: Participants (n=211) were analysed for APOE ε genotypes, physiological parameters and health- and diet-related plasma markers. Lifestyle choices were determined by a questionnaire. Results: APOE genotypes ε3/ε4 and ε4/ε4 (ε4 group) represented 34.1% of the participants. Genotype ε3/ε3 (ε3 group) frequency was 54.5%. Carriers of ε2 (ε2 group; ε2/ε2, ε2/ε3 and ε2/ε4) represented 11.4%; 1.9 % were of the genotype ε2/ε4. The LDL and total cholesterol levels were lower (P<0.05) in the ε2 carriers than in the ε3 or ε4 groups, while the ε3 and ε4 groups did not differ. Proportions of plasma saturated fatty acids were higher (P<0.01) and omega-6 fatty acids lower (P=0.01) in the ε2 carriers compared with the ε4 group. The ε2 carriers had a higher (P<0.05) percentage of 22:4n-6 and 22:5n-6 and a lower (P<0.05) percentage of 24:5n-3 and 24:6n-3 than individuals without the ε2 allele. Conclusions: The plasma fatty acid profiles in the ε2 group were characterised by higher SFA and lower omega-6 fatty acid proportions. Their lower cholesterol values indicated a lower risk for CVD compared with the ε4 group. A novel finding was that the ε2 carriers had different proportions of 22:4n-6, 22:5n-6, 24:5n-3 and 24:6n-3 than individuals without the ε2 allele. The significance of the differences in fatty acid composition remains to be studied.