The use of Reverse Osmosis (RO) desalination has grown considerably in response to water scarcity. Despite steady improvements in efficiency, RO desalination remains an energyintensive process. Numerous studies focussed on using mature Renewable Energy Sources (RES), such as wind and solar photovoltaic (PV) energy, to drive RO plants on a small scale. However, RES have not been used to drive large plants, except with a grid connection, due to the intermittency and fluctuation of such sources. Direct coupling of the RO plant to a RES requires variable-speed operation and/or modular operation to match the load to the available power. This review presents the state-of-the-art in wind and solar-PV powered RO to identify technical challenges and potential solutions regarding large-scale implementation. Recent studies using wind and solar-PV to drive RO are analysed while considering the plant configuration, operational strategy, control system and methods used to improve the plant adaptability to the RES. Technical challenges may include shortened membrane life and 2 reduced performance of energy recovery devices. Potential strategies for incorporating modular and variable-speed operation in commercial RO plants are presented. Control strategies are reviewed, including Model Predictive Control, Neural Networks and classical Proportional-Integral-Differential feedback control. Recommendations are made on future research necessary for operation of commercial RO plant operation from renewable energy.

This review focuses on current research attempts to develop nano-enhanced polymeric desalination membranes. The novel contribution made by this work as compared to many recent reviews on membrane en-

The transition of the energy system into a more efficient state requires innovative ideas to finance new schemes and engage people into adjusting their behavioural patterns concerning consumption. Effective energy management combined with Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) open new opportunities for local and regional authorities, but also for energy suppliers, utilities and other obligated parties, or even energy cooperatives, to implement mechanisms that allow people to become more efficient either by producing and trading energy or by reducing their energy consumption. In this paper, a novel framework is proposed connecting energy savings with a digital energy currency. This framework builds reward schemes where the energy end-users could benefit financially from saving energy, by receiving coins according to their real consumption compared to the predicted consumption if no actions were to take place. A pilot appraisal of such a scheme is presented for the case of Bahrain, so as to simulate the behaviour of the proposed framework in order for it to become a viable choice for intelligent energy management in future action plans.

The Gulf Cooperation Council Countries (GCCC) are largely engaged in renewable energy compared to other sources of energy for achieving sustainable development, i.e., maintaining balance between environmental, socio-economic and energy security and governance; this include mitigating climate change, reducing air pollution, improving energy access and enhancing energy security. According to IRENA report, by 2030, the GCCC could save 354 million barrels of oil equivalent (a 23% reduction), create more than 220,500 jobs, reduce the power sector's carbon dioxide emissions by 22%, and cut water withdrawal in the power sector by 17% based on the renewables targets already in place. The GCCC have been undertaking renewable energy projects for more than 30 years but recently a trend for increasingly ambitious projects is being witnessed. These are being supported by renewable energy targets, innovative research and development, and investments across the entire industry value chain. The renewable energy targets in GCCC are as follows: Bahrain; 5% by 2025 (250 MW) and 10% by 2035, UAE; 30% by 2030 (5000 MW), KSA; 30% by 2040 (5400 MW), Oman 10 by 2020 (600 MW), Kuwait; 15% by 2030 (11,000 MW) and Qatar; 20% by 2030 (1800 MW). The paper highlight on the vast investment and applications carried in GCCC which can be considered as a transition phase in solar and wind energy use in these countries. It also suggests advantageous investments in sustainability in GCCC like investing in Electric Vehicle, Building Integrated PV or Building Integrated Wind Turbine, Rooftop PV for small −scale installation, and Solar and Wind Water Desalination.

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