Conjugated polymers, in general, are unstable when exposed to air, solvent, or thermal treatment, and these challenges limit their practical applications. Therefore, it is of great importance to develop new materials or methodologies that can enable organic electronics with air stability, solvent resistance, and thermal stability. Herein, we have developed a simple but powerful approach to achieve solvent-resistant and thermally stable organic electronic devices with a remarkably improved air stability, by introducing an azide cross-linkable group into a conjugated polymer. To demonstrate this concept, we have synthesized polythiophene with azide groups attached to end of the alkyl chain (P3HT-azide). Photo-cross-linking of P3HT-azide copolymers dramatically improves the solvent resistance of the active layer without disrupting the molecular ordering and charge transport. This is the first demonstration of solvent-resistant organic transistors. Furthermore, the bulk-heterojunction organic photovoltaics (BHJ OPVs) containing P3HTazide copolymers show an average efficiency higher than 3.3% after 40 h annealing at an elevated temperature of 150 °C, which represents one of the most thermally stable OPV devices reported to date. This enhanced stability is due to an in situ compatibilizer that forms at the P3HT/PCBM interface and suppresses macrophase separation. Our approach paves a way toward organic electronics with robust and stable operations.

A new series of donor−acceptor (D−A) conjugated random terpolymers (PBDTT−DPP−TPD) were synthesized from electron-rich thienyl-substituted benzo[1,2b:4,5-b′]dithiophene (BDTT), in conjugation with two electron-deficient units, pyrrolo [3,4-c]pyrrole-1,4-dione (DPP) and thieno [3,4-c]pyrrole-4,6-dione (TPD), of different electron-withdrawing strengths. The optical properties of these random terpolymers can be easily controlled by tuning the ratio between DPP and TPD; an increase in TPD induced increased absorption between 400 and 650 nm and a lower highest occupied molecular orbital energy level, while higher DPP contents resulted in stronger absorption between 600 and 900 nm. The best power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 6.33% was obtained from PBDTT−DPP75−TPD25 with [6,6]-phenyl-C 71 -butyric acid methyl ester (PC 71 BM) due to the improved light absorption and thus a short-circuit current density (J SC ) higher than 16 mA/cm 2 . Interestingly, the trend observed in the PCE values differed from that of optical behavior of the PBDTT−DPP−TPD in terms of the DPP to TPD ratio, showing nonlinear compositional dependence from 2 to 6%. Density functional theory calculations showed that the small portions of strong electron-withdrawing DPP in PBDTT−DPP25−TPD75 and PBDTT−DPP10−TPD90 could provide trap sites, which suppress efficient charge transfer. In contrast, for PBDTT−DPP90−TPD10 and PBDTT−DPP75−TPD25, the effect of minor portions of TPD on electron density distribution was found to be minimal. In addition, the polymer packing and nanomorphology were investigated by grazing-incidence X-ray scattering and atomic force microscopy. The findings suggested that controlling the ratio of electron-deficient units in the random terpolymers is critical for optimizing their performance in polymer solar cells because it affects the polymer packing structure, the optical and electrical properties, and the electron distribution in the polymers.

The ability to tune the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO)/highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) levels of fullerene derivatives used as electron acceptors is crucial in controlling the optical/electrochemical properties of these materials and the open circuit voltage (V oc) of solar cells. Here, we report a series of indene fullerene multiadducts (ICMA, ICBA, and ICTA) in which different numbers of indene solubilizing groups are attached to the fullerene molecule. The addition of indene units to fullerene raised its LUMO and HOMO levels, resulting in higher V oc values in the photovoltaic device. Bulk-heterojunction (BHJ) solar cells fabricated from poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) and a series of fullerene multiadducts-ICMA, ICBA, and ICTA showed V oc values of 0.65, 0.83, and 0.92 V, respectively. Despite demonstrating the highest V oc value, the P3HT:ICTA device exhibited lower efficiency (1.56%) than the P3HT:ICBA device (5.26%) because of its lower fill factor and current. This result could be explained by the lower light absorption and electron mobility of the P3HT:ICTA device, suggesting that there is an optimal number of the solubilizing group that can be added to the fullerene molecule. The effects of the addition of solubilizing groups on the optoelectrical properties of fullerene derivatives were carefully investigated to elucidate the molecular structure–device function relationship.

We delineate the important role of 2D conjugated alkylthiophene side chains of polymers in manipulating the molecular orientation and ordering at the polymer donor/polymer acceptor (P D /P A ) interface as well as the composition variations in the blend active layer of all-polymer solar cells (all-PSCs). To systematically investigate the impact of 2D conjugated side chains on the performance of all-PSCs, we synthesized a series of polypolymer donors with different contents of alkoxy and alkylthiophene side chains, from 0 to 100% (PBDT-TPD (P1, 100% alkoxy side chain), PBDTT 0.29 -TPD (P2), PBDTT 0.59 -TPD (P3), PBDTT 0.76 -TPD (P4), and PBDTT-TPD (P5, 100% alkylthiophene side chain). The P1−P5 polymer donors produced similar PCEs of ∼6% in fullerene-based PSCs. In contrast, for the all-PSC systems, the changes in the side chain composition of the polymers induced a strong increasing trend in the power conversion efficiencies (PCEs), from 2.82% (P1), to 3.16% (P2), to 4.41% (P3), to 5.32% (P4), and to 6.60% (P5). The significant increase in the PCEs of the all-PSCs was attributed mainly to improvements in the short-circuit current density (J SC ) and fill factor (FF). The 2D conjugated side chains promoted localized molecular orientation and ordering relative to the P D /P A interfaces and improved domain purity, which led to enhanced exciton dissociation and charge transport characteristics of the all-PSCs. Our observations highlight the advantage of incorporating 2D conjugated side chains into polymer donors for producing high-performance all-PSC systems.

Surface-engineered, 10 nm-sized graphene quantum dots (GQDs) are shown to be efficient surfactants for producing 3-pentadecyl phenol (PDP)-combined poly­(styrene-b-4-vinylpyridine) (PS-b-P4VP­(PDP)) particles that feature tunable shapes and internal morphologies. The surface properties of GQDs were modified by grafting different alkyl ligands, such as hexylamine and oleylamine, to generate the surfactant behavior of the GQDs. In stark contrast to the behavior of the unmodified GQDs, hexylamine-grafted GQDs and oleylamine-grafted GQD surfactants were selectively positioned on the PS and P4VP­(PDP) domains, respectively, at the surface of the particles. This positioning effectively tuned the interfacial interaction between two different PS/P4VP­(PDP) domains of the particles and the surrounding water during emulsification and induced a dramatic morphological transition to convex lens-shaped particles. Precise and systematic control of interfacial activity of GQD surfactants was also demonstrated by varying the density of the alkyl ligands on the GQDs. The excellent surface tunability of 10 nm-sized GQDs combined with their significant optical and electrical properties highlight their importance as surfactants for producing colloidal particles with novel functions.

As organic semiconductors attract increasing attention to application in the fields of bioelectronics and artificial photosynthesis, understanding the factors that determine their robust operation in direct contact with aqueous electrolytes becomes a critical task. Herein we uncover critical factors that influence the operational stability of donor:acceptor bulk heterojunction photocathodes for solar hydrogen production and significantly advance their performance under operational conditions. First, using the direct photoelectrochemical reduction of aqueous Eu 3+ and impedance spectroscopy, we determine that replacing the commonly used fullerene-based electron acceptor with a perylene diimide-based polymer drastically increases operational stability and identify that limiting the photogenerated electron accumulation at the organic/water interface to values of ca. 100 nC cm −2 is required for stable operation (>12 h). These insights are extended to solar-driven hydrogen production using MoS 3 , MoP, or RuO 2 water reduction catalyst overlayers where it is found that the catalyst morphology strongly affects performance due to differences in charge extraction. Optimized performance of bulk heterojunction photocathodes coated with a MoS 3 :MoP composite gave 1 Sun photocurrent density up to 8.7 mA cm −2 at 0 V vs RHE (pH 1). However, increased stability was gained with RuO 2 where initial photocurrent density (>8 mA cm −2 ) deceased only 15% or 33% during continuous operation for 8 or 20 h, respectively, thus demonstrating unprecedented robustness without a protection layer. This performance represents a new benchmark for organic semiconductor photocathodes for solar fuel production and advances the understanding of stability criteria for organic semiconductor/water-junction-based devices.

The branching point of the side-chain of naphthalenediimide (NDI)-based conjugated polymers is systematically controlled by incorporating four different side-chains, i.e., 2-hexyloctyl (P(NDI1-T)), 3-hexylnonyl (P(NDI2-T)), 4-hexyldecyl (P(NDI3-T)), and 5-hexylundecyl (P(NDI4-T)). When the branching point is located farther away from the conjugated backbones, steric hindrance around the backbone is relaxed and the intermolecular interactions between the polymer chains become stronger, which promotes the formation of crystalline structures in thin film state. In particular, thermally annealed films of P(NDI3-T) and P(NDI4-T), which have branching points far away from the backbone, possess more-developed bimodal structure along both the face-on and edge-on orientations. Consequently, the field-effect electron mobilities of P(NDIm-T) polymers are monotonically increased from 0.03 cm 2 V −1 s −1 in P(NDI1-T) to 0.22 cm 2 V −1 s −1 in P(NDI4-T), accompanied by reduced activation energy and contact resistance of the thin films. In addition, when the series of P(NDIm-T) polymers is applied in all-polymer solar cells (all-PSCs) as electron acceptor, remarkably high-power conversion efficiency of 7.1% is achieved along with enhanced current density in P(NDI3-T)based all-PSCs, which is mainly attributed to red-shifted light absorption and enhanced electron-transporting ability.

over fullerene-based PSCs, including easily tunable polymer properties, simultaneous light absorption by both donors and acceptors, and enhanced stability against mechanical and thermal stresses. [1] However, few all-PSCs have been reported to exhibit power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) higher than 7%, as many systems have relatively low short-circuit current densities (J SC ) and fill factors (FF). [1d,e,2] The low performance of all-PSCs is mainly attributed to (i) low electron mobility of polymer acceptors within the photoactive layer and (ii) inefficient exciton dissociation at donor/acceptor (D/A) interfaces as a result of the anisotropic packing structure of donor and acceptor polymers. [3] Another hurdle for efficient exciton dissociation is lower dielectric constant of the polymers than that of fullerene derivatives, which increases the binding energy of the excitons in all-PSCs. [4] To develop polymer acceptors with high electron mobility, various n-type polymers have been designed and synthesized, among which naphthalenediimide (NDI)-based copolymers have attracted great attention due to strong π-π interactions between NDI units and facile functionalization through the N-position of NDI moiety. [1b,c,2a,c,5] However, lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of NDI-based polymers is often largely localized on the NDI units due to the high electron affinity of NDI, which hinders efficient intermolecular electron transport. [5n,6] Thus, insertion of strong electron-withdrawing groups into the electron donating moieties of the NDI-based copolymers would be a promising approach to enhance electron transport and intermolecular interactions by delocalizing the LUMO over the polymer backbone and generating stronger orbital overlaps between the adjacent polymer chains. [6a,b] Charge generation at the interfaces of the D/A polymer domains within the photoactive layer depends significantly on the interfacial dipole moment between the donor and acceptor and the internal dipole moment of the polymers. [3a,5l,7] Additionally, for conjugated polymers with a large dipole moment difference between the ground and excited states (Δµ ge ), the electron-hole separation distance within the polymer chain increases as the polarized exciton is formed, which reduces the Designing polymers that facilitate exciton dissociation and charge transport is critical for the production of highly efficient all-polymer solar cells (all-PSCs). Here, the development of a new class of high-performance naphthalenediimide (NDI)-based polymers with large dipole moment change (Δµ ge ) and delocalized lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) as electron acceptors for all-PSCs is reported. A series of NDI-based copolymers incorporating electron-withdrawing cyanovinylene groups into the backbone (PNDITCVT-R) is designed and synthesized with 2-hexyldecyl (R = HD) and2-octyldodecyl (R = OD) side chains. Density functional theory calculations reveal an enhancement in Δµ ge and delocalization of the LUMO upon the incorporation of cyano...