Summary Research on organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) typically focuses on either one type of OCB or an aggregate of multiple types of OCB. We investigate a third conceptualization of OCB by examining how employees use conscientiousness, sportsmanship, civic virtue, courtesy, and altruism in distinct combinations. In Study 1, we identify 5 profiles of citizenship in a sample of 129 workers in a medium‐sized firm. Some employees used either high levels (prosocial citizens), above average levels (contributors), or low levels of all 5 OCBs (disengaged). Another profile of employees (specialists) displayed relatively high levels of civic virtue and altruism, and a final profile of employees (moderates) engaged in below‐average levels of all OCBs except conscientiousness. We also found that organizational concern citizenship motives related to these profiles. In Study 2, using a more generalizable sample of over 400 employees, we replicated 4 of the 5 profiles and identified a group of employees who mainly engaged in OCBs aimed at others (good coworkers). Using data collected at 3 points in time, we also found that citizenship motives (impression management, prosocial values, and organizational concern) predicted all 5 OCB profiles and that these profiles predicted job performance ratings, workplace status, and citizenship fatigue.
This study investigated age and gender differences in the quality of attachment to mothers, fathers, and peers, and the association of attachment with measures of self‐evaluation in 584 Chinese adolescents in junior high, high school, and university. Their responses to the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment indexed attachment quality, and self‐evaluation was measured by the Rosenberg Self‐Esteem Scale and the Self‐Liking and Self‐Competence Scale. Consistent with findings with Western samples, our analyses revealed (a) lower parent–child relationship quality in middle (compared to early) adolescence, (b) a significant association of parental and peer attachment with self‐evaluation, and (c) gender differences in attachment to peers, with females reporting stronger attachment than males. Chinese females reported stronger maternal attachment than did males, and for females the quality of maternal attachment was more strongly related to self‐evaluation than any other attachment relationship. During high school, peer attachment quality – rather than parental – was preeminently associated with self‐evaluation. The findings of this study indicate that in a context of considerable consistency of findings with Western studies, parent–child attachment in Chinese adolescents is also influenced by culture‐specific practices that influence parent–youth relationships and their meaning to the child.
Specification search problems refer to two important but under-addressed issues in testing for factorial invariance: how to select proper reference indicators and how to locate specific non-invariant parameters. In this study, we propose a two-step procedure to solve these issues. Step 1 is to identify a proper reference indicator using the Bayesian structural equation modeling approach. An item is selected if it is associated with the highest likelihood to be invariant across groups. Step 2 is to locate specific non-invariant parameters, given that a proper reference indicator has already been selected in Step 1. A series of simulation analyses show that the proposed method performs well under a variety of data conditions, and optimal performance is observed under conditions of large magnitude of non-invariance, low proportion of non-invariance, and large sample sizes. We also provide an empirical example to demonstrate the specific procedures to implement the proposed method in applied research. The importance and influences are discussed regarding the choices of informative priors with zero mean and small variances. Extensions and limitations are also pointed out.
This study explored the impact of partial factorial invariance on cross-group comparisons of latent variables, including latent means, latent variances, structural relations (or correlations) with other constructs, and regression coefficients as predicting external variables. The results indicate that the estimates of factor mean differences are sensitive to violations of invariance on both factor loadings and intercepts. Noninvariant factor loadings were also found to influence the cross-group comparisons of factor variances and regression coefficients (slopes, in the raw metric) with external variables. However, cross-group comparisons of standardized slopes and interfactor correlations were not subject to noninvariance. Under conditions of partial invariance, we further compared the performance of four different model specification strategies. In general, fitting partially invariant models with all noninvariant parameters that were freely estimated yielded more accurate estimates of the parameters of interest. The implications of the major findings of this work, as well as recommendations and guidelines for future empirical researchers, are discussed below.
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