Chronic viral infections are characterized by a state of CD8+ T-cell dysfunction that is associated with expression of the programmed cell death 1 (PD-1) inhibitory receptor1–4. A better understanding of the mechanisms that regulate CD8+ T cell responses during chronic infection is required to improve immunotherapies that restore function in exhausted CD8+ T cells. Here we identify a population of virus-specific CD8+ T cells that proliferate after blockade of the PD-1 inhibitory pathway in mice chronically infected with lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). These LCMV-specific CD8+ T cells expressed the PD-1 inhibitory receptor but also expressed several costimulatory molecules such as ICOS and CD28. This CD8+ T cell subset was characterized by a unique gene signature that was related to that of CD4+ T follicular helper (TFH) cells, CD8+ T cell memory precursors and haematopoietic stem cell progenitors, but that was distinct from that of CD4+ TH1 cells and CD8+ terminal effectors. This CD8+ T cell population was found only in lymphoid tissues and resided predominantly in the T cell zones along with naïve CD8+ T cells. These PD-1+ CD8+ T cells resembled stem cells during chronic LCMV infection, undergoing self-renewal and also differentiating into the terminally exhausted CD8+ T cells that were present in both lymphoid and non-lymphoid tissues. The proliferative burst after PD-1 blockade came almost exclusively from this CD8+ T cell subset. Notably, the transcription factor TCF1 had a cell intrinsic and essential role in the generation of this CD8+ T cell subset. These findings provide a better understanding of T cell exhaustion and have implications in the optimization of PD-1-directed immunotherapy in chronic infections and cancer.

T cell factor 1 (TCF-1) is a transcription factor known to act downstream of the canonical Wnt pathway and is essential for normal T cell development. However, its physiological roles in mature CD8+ T cell responses are unknown. Here we showed that TCF-1 deficiency limited proliferation of CD8+ effector T cells and impaired their differentiation towards a central memory phenotype. Moreover, TCF-1-deficient memory CD8+ T cells were progressively lost over time, exhibiting reduced expression of the anti-apoptotic molecule Bcl-2, interleukin-2 receptor β chain and diminished IL-15-driven proliferation. TCF-1 was directly associated with the Eomes allele and the Wnt-TCF-1 pathway was necessary and sufficient for optimal Eomes expression in naïve and memory CD8+ T cells. Importantly, forced expression of Eomes partly protected TCF-1-deficient memory CD8+ T cells from time-dependent attrition. Our studies thus identify TCF-1 as a critical player in a transcriptional program that regulates memory CD8 differentiation and longevity.

T follicular helper (TFH) cells are specialized effector CD4+ T cells that help B cells develop germinal centers and memory. However, the transcription factors that regulate TFH differentiation remain incompletely understood. Here we report that selective loss of either Lef1 (LEF-1) or Tcf7 (TCF-1) resulted in TFH defects, while deletion of Lef1 and Tcf7 severely impaired TFH differentiation and germinal centers. Forced expression of LEF-1 enhanced TFH differentiation. LEF-1 and TCF-1 coordinated TFH differentiation by two general mechanisms. First, they established the responsiveness of naïve CD4+ T cells to TFH signals. Second, they promoted early TFH differentiation via the multipronged approach of sustaining expression of IL-6Rα and gp130, enhancing ICOS expression, and promoting expression of Bcl6.

Summary Repetitive antigen-stimulation by prime-boost vaccination or pathogen re-encounter increases memory CD8+ T cell numbers, however the impact on memory CD8+ T cell differentiation is unknown. Here we showed that repetitive antigen-stimulations induced accumulation of memory CD8+ T cells with uniform effector memory characteristics. However, genome-wide microarray analyses revealed that each additional antigen-challenge resulted in the differential regulation of several hundred new genes in the ensuing memory CD8+ T cell populations and therefore in stepwise diversification of CD8+ T cell transcriptomes. Thus, primary and repeatedly stimulated (secondary, tertiary, quaternary) memory CD8+ T cells differ substantially in their molecular signature while sharing expression of a small group of genes and biological pathways, which may constitute a core signature of memory differentiation. These results provide new insight into the complex regulation of memory CD8+ T cell differentiation and identify a spectrum of potential new molecular targets to dissect the function of memory cells generated by repeated antigen-stimulation.

The CD4+ and CD8+ T cell dichotomy is essential for effective cellular immunity. How the individual T cell identity is established remains poorly understood. Here we show that the high mobility group (HMG) transcription factors Tcf1 and Lef1 are essential for repressing CD4+ lineage-associated genes including Cd4, Foxp3 and Rorc in CD8+ T cells. Tcf1- and Lef1-deficient CD8+ T cells exhibit histone hyperacetylation, which is ascribed to an unexpected intrinsic histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity in Tcf1 and Lef1. Mutating five conserved amino acids in the Tcf1 HDAC domain diminishes the HDAC activity and the ability to suppress CD4+ lineage genes in CD8+ T cells. These findings reveal that sequence-specific transcription factors can utilize intrinsic HDAC activity to guard cell identity by repressing lineage-inappropriate genes.