Context. The AGN-heated dust distribution (the "torus") is increasingly recognized not only as the absorber required in unifying models, but as a tracer for the reservoir that feeds the nuclear super-massive black hole. Yet, even its most basic structural properties (such as its extent, geometry and elongation) are unknown for all but a few archetypal objects. Aims. In order to understand how the properties of AGN tori are related to feeding and obscuration, we need to resolve the matter distribution on parsec scales. Methods. Since most AGNs are unresolved in the mid-IR, even with the largest telescopes, we utilize the MID-infrared interferometric Instrument (MIDI) at the Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI) that is sensitive to structures as small as a few milli-arcseconds (mas). We present here an extensive amount of new interferometric observations from the MIDI AGN Large Program (2009Program ( -2011 and add data from the archive to give a complete view of the existing MIDI observations of AGNs. Additionally, we have obtained high-quality mid-IR spectra from VLT/VISIR to provide a precise total flux reference for the interferometric data.Results. We present correlated and total fluxes for 23 AGNs (16 of which with new data) and derive flux and size estimates at 12 µm using simple axisymmetric geometrical models. Perhaps the most surprising result is the relatively high level of unresolved flux and its large scatter: The median "point source fraction" is 70% for type 1 and 47 % for type 2 AGNs meaning that a large part of the flux is concentrated on scales <5 mas (0.1-10 pc). Among sources observed with similar spatial resolution, it varies from 20%-100%. For 18 of the sources, two nuclear components can be distinguished in the radial fits. While these models provide good fits to all but the brightest sources, significant elongations are detected in eight sources. Conclusions. The half-light radii of the fainter sources are smaller than expected from the size ∝L 0.5 scaling of the bright sources and show a large scatter, especially when compared to the relatively tight size-luminosity relation in the near-infrared. It is likely that a common "size-luminosity" relation does not exist for AGN tori, but that they are dominated by intrinsic differences in their dust structures. Variations in the relative contribution of extended dust in the narrow line region or heated by star formation vs. compact AGN-heated dust and non-thermal emission also have to be taken into account.

Context. Giant cluster radio relics are thought to form at shock fronts in the course of collisions between galaxy clusters. Via processes that are still poorly understood, these shocks accelerate or re-accelerate cosmic-ray electrons and might amplify magnetic fields. The best object to study this phenomenon is the galaxy cluster CIZA J2242.8+5301 as it shows the most undisturbed relic. By means of Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (GMRT) and Westerbork Synthesis Radio Telescope (WSRT) data at seven frequencies spanning from 153 MHz to 2272 MHz, we study the synchrotron emission in this cluster. Aims. We aim at distinguishing between theoretical injection and acceleration models proposed for the formation of radio relics. We also study the head-tail radio sources to reveal the interplay between the merger and the cluster galaxies. Methods. We produced spectral index, curvature maps, and radio colour-colour plots and compared our data with predictions from models.Results. We present one of the deepest 153 MHz maps of a cluster ever produced, reaching a noise level of 1.5 mJy beam −1 . We derive integrated spectra for four relics in the cluster, discovering extremely steep spectrum diffuse emission concentrated in multiple patches. We find a possible radio phoenix embedded in the relic to the south of the cluster. The spectral index of the northern relic retains signs of steepening from the front towards the back of the shock also at the radio frequencies below 600 MHz. The spectral curvature in the same relic also increases in the downstream area. The data is consistent with the Komissarov-Gubanov injection models, meaning that the emission we observe is produced by a single burst of spectrally-aged accelerated radio electrons.

We present a sample of 29 galaxy clusters from the XMM‐LSS survey over an area of some 5 deg2 out to a redshift of z= 1.05. The sample clusters, which represent about half of the X‐ray clusters identified in the region, follow well‐defined X‐ray selection criteria and are all spectroscopically confirmed. For all clusters, we provide X‐ray luminosities and temperatures as well as masses, obtained from dedicated spatial and spectral fitting. The cluster distribution peaks around z= 0.3 and T= 1.5 keV, half of the objects being groups with a temperature below 2 keV. Our LX–T(z) relation points towards self‐similar evolution, but does not exclude other physically plausible models. Assuming that cluster scaling laws follow self‐similar evolution, our number density estimates up to z= 1 are compatible with the predictions of the concordance cosmology and with the findings of previous ROSAT surveys. Our well‐monitored selection function allowed us to demonstrate that the inclusion of selection effects is essential for the correct determination of the evolution of the LX–T relation, which may explain the contradictory results from previous studies. Extensive simulations show that extending the survey area to 10 deg2 has the potential to exclude the non‐evolution hypothesis, but those constraints on more refined intracluster medium models will probably be limited by the large intrinsic dispersion of the LX–T relation, whatever be the sample size. We further demonstrate that increasing the dispersion in the scaling laws increases the number of detectable clusters, hence generating further degeneracy [in addition to σ8, Ωm, LX–T(z)] in the cosmological interpretation of the cluster number counts. We provide useful empirical formulae for the cluster mass–flux and mass–count rate relations as well as a comparison between the XMM‐LSS mass sensitivity and that of forthcoming Sunyaev–Zel'dovich surveys.

Context. To reveal the origin of mid-infrared radiation from the core of Centaurus A, we carried out interferometric observations with the MID-infrared Interferometer (MIDI) at ESO's VLTI telescope array. Aims. Observations were obtained with four baselines between unit telescopes of the VLTI, two of them roughly along the radio axis and two orthogonal to it. The interferometric measurements are spectrally resolved with λ/∆λ = 30 in the wavelength range 8 to 13 µm. Their resolution reaches 15 mas at the shortest wavelengths. Supplementary observations were obtained in the near-infrared with the adaptive optics instrument NACO, and at mm wavelengths with SEST and JCMT. Methods. The mid-infrared emission from the core of Centaurus A is dominated by an unresolved point source (<10 mas). Observations with baselines orientated perpendicular to the radio jet reveal an extended component which can be interpreted as a geometrically thin, dusty disk, the axis of which is aligned with the radio jet. Its diameter is about 0.6 pc. It contributes between 20% (at λ 8 µm) and 40% (at λ 13 µm) to the nuclear flux from Centaurus A and contains dust at about 240 K. We argue, that the unresolved emission is dominated by a synchrotron source. Its overall spectrum is characterized by an F ν ∼ ν −0.36 power-law which cuts off exponentially towards high frequencies at ν c = 8 × 10 13 Hz and becomes optically thick at ν < ν 1 45 GHz. Results. Based on a Synchrotron Self Compton (SSC) interpretation for the γ-ray emission, we find a magnetic field strength of 26 µT and a maximum energy of relativistic electrons of γ c = E c /m e c 2 = 8500. Near γ c , the acceleration time scale is τ acc = 4 days, in good agreement with the fastest flux variations, observed at X-ray frequencies. Our SSC model argues for a Doppler factor δ 1 whichtogether with the jet-counter jet ratio of the radio jets on parsec scale -results in an upper limit for the bulk Lorentz factor Γ jet < 2.5, at variance with the concept of a "mis-directed BL Lac object". Conclusions. We estimate a thermal luminosity of the core, P th 1.3 × 10 34 W = 1.5 × 10 −4 × L Edd , intermediate between the values for highly efficiently accreting AGN (e.g. Seyfert galaxies) and those of typical FR I radio galaxies. This luminosity, which is predominantly released in X-rays, is most likely generated in an Advection Dominated Accretion Flow (ADAF) and seems just sufficient to heat the dusty disk.

Abstract. The Westerbork Northern Sky Survey (WENSS) has been used to select a sample of Gigahertz Peaked Spectrum (GPS) radio sources at flux densities one to two orders of magnitude lower than bright GPS sources investigated in earlier studies. Sources with inverted spectra at frequencies above 325 MHz have been observed with the WSRT at 1.4 and 5 GHz and with the VLA at 8.6 and 15 GHz to select genuine GPS sources. This has resulted in a sample of 47 GPS sources with peak frequencies ranging from ∼500 MHz to > 15 GHz, and peak flux densities ranging from ∼40 to ∼900 mJy. Counts of GPS sources in our sample as a function of flux density have been compared with counts of large scale sources from WENSS scaled to 2 GHz, the typical peak frequency of our GPS sources. The counts can be made similar if the number of large scale sources at 2 GHz is divided by 250, and their flux densities increase by a factor of 10. On the scenario that all GPS sources evolve into large scale radio sources, these results show that the lifetime of a typical GPS source is ∼250 times shorter than a typical large scale radio source, and that the source luminosity must decrease by a factor of ∼10 in evolving from GPS to large scale radio source. However, we note that the redshift distributions of GPS and large scale radio sources are different and that this hampers a direct and straightforward interpretation of the source counts. Further modeling of radio source evolution combined withThe Westerbork Synthesis Radio telescope (WSRT) is operated by the Netherlands Foundation for Research in Astronomy with financial support from the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO).The Very Large Array (VLA) is operated by the U.S. National Radio Astronomy Observatory which is operated by the Associated Universities, Inc. under cooperative agreement with the National Science Foundation. cosmological evolution of the radio luminosity function for large sources is required.

Abstract. We present the results of narrow-band and broad-band imaging with the Very Large Telescope of the field surrounding the radio galaxy TN J0924-2201 at z = 5.2. Fourteen candidate Lyα emitters with a rest-frame equivalent width of >20 Å were detected. Spectroscopy of 8 of these objects showed that 6 have redshifts similar to that of the radio galaxy. The density of emitters at the redshift of the radio galaxy is estimated to be a factor 1.5-6.2 higher than in the field, and comparable to the density of Lyα emitters in radio galaxy protoclusters at z = 4.1, 3.1 and 2.2. The Lyα emitters near TN J0924-2201 could therefore be part of a structure that will evolve into a massive cluster. These observations confirm that substantial clustering of Lyα emitters occurs at z > 5 and support the idea that radio galaxies pinpoint high density regions in the early Universe.

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Context. New generation low-frequency telescopes are exploring a new parameter space in terms of depth and resolution. The data taken with these interferometers, for example with the LOw Frequency ARray (LOFAR), are often calibrated in a low signal-to-noise ratio regime and the removal of critical systematic effects is challenging. The process requires an understanding of their origin and properties. Aims. In this paper we describe the major systematic effects inherent to next generation low-frequency telescopes, such as LOFAR. With this knowledge, we introduce a data processing pipeline that is able to isolate and correct these systematic effects. The pipeline will be used to calibrate calibrator observations as the first step of a full data reduction process. Methods. We processed two LOFAR observations of the calibrator 3C 196: the first using the Low Band Antenna (LBA) system at 42-66 MHz and the second using the High Band Antenna (HBA) system at 115-189 MHz. Results. We were able to isolate and correct for the effects of clock drift, polarisation misalignment, ionospheric delay, Faraday rotation, ionospheric scintillation, beam shape, and bandpass. The designed calibration strategy produced the deepest image to date at 54 MHz. The image has been used to confirm that the spectral energy distribution of the average radio source population tends to flatten at low frequencies.Conclusions. We prove that LOFAR systematic effects can be described by a relatively small number of parameters. Furthermore, the identification of these parameters is fundamental to reducing the degrees of freedom when the calibration is carried out on fields that are not dominated by a strong calibrator.