Equine herpesvirus-1 is a highly prevalent and frequently pathogenic infection of equids. The most serious clinical consequences of infection are abortion and equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM). In recent years, there has been an apparent increase in the incidence of EHM in North America, with serious consequences for horses and the horse industry. This consensus statement draws together current knowledge in the areas of pathogenesis, strain variation, epidemiology, diagnostic testing, vaccination, outbreak prevention and control, and treatment.Key words: Abortion; Horse; Immunology; Infectious diseases; Myeloencephalopathy; Respiratory tract; Viral.E quine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) infection is ubiquitous in most horse populations throughout the world, and causes disease in horses and extensive economic losses through frequent outbreaks of respiratory disease, abortion, neonatal foal death, and myeloencephalopathy. [1][2][3][4] Infections caused by EHV-1 are particularly common in young performance horses, and typically result in establishment of latent infection within the 1st weeks or months of life 5 with subsequent viral reactivation causing clinical disease and viral shedding during periods of stress. The relevant effects of this virus on the equine population are 3-fold. Firstly, sporadic occurrence of mild respiratory disease associated with pyrexia, principally affecting horses under 2 years of age, can lead to interruptions in athletic training programs; this is economically the least important manifestation of EHV-1 disease. Secondly, abortion occurring during the 3rd trimester of pregnancy, results in important economic losses. Thirdly, outbreaks of neurological disease (equine herpes myeloencephalopathy or EHM) cause suffering and loss of life and also lead to extensive movement restrictions, disrupting breeding or training schedules and causing management difficulties at training centers, racetracks, and horse events. A perceived increase in the incidence of EHM outbreaks in North America in recent years has led to the proposal that it could represent an emerging disease threat. 6 The recent increased impact of EHM in North America provided the impetus for this consensus statement. The renewed focus on EHV-1 infection and its control, new developments in our understanding of this virus and its behavior in horses, and the development of new viral detection technologies have resulted in renewed challenges for clinicians in responding to the threat of EHV-1 and to outbreaks. In an attempt to address this challenge, this statement is structured as a series of critical questions, which we believe capture the key challenges for equine clinicians and scientists. The responses seek to distill current evidence-based knowledge Abbreviations:CTL cytotoxic T-lymphocyte EHM equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy EHV-1 equine herpesvirus-1 Consensus Statements of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine (ACVIM) provide the veterinary community with up-to-date information on the pathophysiolo...

Cattle are an important reservoir of Escherichia coli O157:H7 leading to contamination of food and water, and subsequent human disease. This pathogen colonizes its hosts by producing several proteins such as Tir and EspA that are secreted by a type III secretion system. These proteins play a role in colonization of the intestine, suggesting that they might be useful targets for the development of a vaccine to reduce levels of this organism in cattle. Vaccination of cattle with proteins secreted by E. coli O157:H7 significantly reduced the numbers of bacteria shed in feces, the numbers of animals that shed, and the duration of shedding in an experimental challenge model. Vaccination of cattle also significantly (P=0.04) reduced the prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 in a clinical trial conducted in a typical feedlot setting. This strategy suggests it is possible to vaccinate cattle to decrease the level of E. coli O157:H7 shedding for the purpose of reducing the risk of human disease.

Summary At least three types of movement take place in the joint complexes of the equine thoracolumbar spine: dorsoventral flexion and extension, axial rotation and lateral bending. Using the standard right‐handed Cartesian coordinate system, these movements may be defined as rotation about the x, y and z axes respectively. Except in cases of intervertebral fusion, all three types of movement occur in each joint complex of the equine back. The greatest amount of dorsoventral movement takes place at the lumbosacral and the first thoracic intervertebral joints. The greatest amount of axial rotation and lateral bending was measured in the mid‐thoracolumbar spine at the level of the 11th or 12th thoracic intervertebral joints. The caudal thoracic and the lumbar spine is the least mobile region of the equine back. In the mid‐thoracic spine, lateral bending was always accompanied by a “coupled” axial rotation. The presence of the rib cage stabilised the cranial thoracic vertebrae against axial rotation. Résumé Trois types de mouvement au moins se produisent dans les complexes articulaires de la colonne vertébrale thoraco lombaire du cheval; flexion et extension dorso ventrales, rotation axiale et courbure latérale. En utilisant le système coordonné cartésien dextre ces mouvements penvent être définis comme des rotations autour des axes x, y et z. A l'exception des cas de fusion inter vertébrale ces trois types de mouvement se produisent dans chaque complexe articulaire du dos du cheval. Les mouvements dorso ventraux les plus fréquents se produisent dans l'articulation lombo sacrée et dans la première articulation intervertébrale thoracique. Les mouvements de rotation axiale et de courbure latérale les plus nombreux se constatent dans la partie centrale de l'axe thoraco lombaire, 11 ème et 12 ème articulations intervertébrales thoraciques. La partie caudale du segment thoracique et le segment lombaire forment la région la moins mobile du dos du cheval. Dans la partie méso‐thoracique, la courbure latérale est toujours couplée avec une rotation axiale. L'armature costale protège les vertèbres thoraciques craniales d'une rotation axiale. Zusammenfassung Mindestens drei Bewegungstypen laufen in den Gelenken der thorakolumbalen Wirbelsäule des Pferdes ab: eine dorsoventrale Flexion und Extension, eine axiale Rotation und eine laterale Biegung. Innerhalb des rechtsgerichteten, karthesischen Koordinatensystems können diese Bewegungen als Rotationen um die x, y und z Achse definiert werden. Ausser in Fällen einer intervertebralen Fusion laufen die drei Bewegungstypen in jedem Gelenkskomplex des Pferderückens ab. Das grösste Ausmass nimmt die dorsoventrale Bewegung in den lumbosacralen und in den ersten thorakalen Intervertebralgelenken an. Das grösste Ausmass der axialen Rotation und der lateralen Biegung wurde in der Mitte der thorakolumbalen Wirbelsäule auf der Höhe des 11. und 12. Zwischenwirbelgelenks gemessen. Die hintere thorakale und die lumbäre Wirbelsäule ist am wenigsten beweglich. In der mittleren Brustwirbelsäule wa...

Summary Reasons for performing study: There is little published information available describing clinical signs, arthroscopic findings and prognosis of meniscal injuries in horses. Objectives: To evaluate the effect on the outcome not only of the arthroscopic findings and treatment, but also of the clinical and radiographic signs in these horses. Methods: The following were recorded for each case: the meniscal injury, graded according to severity; clinical and radiographic findings prior to surgery; any concurrent injury in the joint seen at arthroscopy. The effect of these factors and the grade of injury on the outcome were analysed using Fisher's exact test or Chi‐square analysis. Only horses whose meniscal injury was judged to be the primary cause of lameness were included in the series. Results: A series of 80 meniscal injuries were diagnosed and treated arthroscopically by the authors at the Liphook Equine Hospital and 47% of horses returned to full use. Statistically, poor prognosis was associated with increasing severity of the meniscal injury, the presence of concurrent articular cartilage lesions and radiographic abnormalities in the joint. Arthroscopic treatment of many lesions was limited by the inaccessibility of parts of the femorotibial joint. Potential relevance: Further work is required to improve and evaluate arthroscopic techniques for the treatment of these injuries.

Intradermal immunization using microfabricated needles represents a potentially powerful technology, which can enhance immune responses and provide antigen sparing. Solid vaccine formulations, which can be coated onto microneedle patches suitable for simple administration, can also potentially offer improved shelf-life. However the approach is not fully compatible with many vaccine adjuvants including alum, the most common adjuvant used in the vaccine market globally. Here, we introduce a polyphosphazene immunoadjuvant as a biologically potent and synergistic constituent of microneedle-based intradermal immunization technology. Poly[di-(carboxylatophenoxy)phosphazene], PCPP, functions both as a vaccine adjuvant and as a key microfabrication material. When used as part of an intradermal delivery system for hepatitis B surface antigen, PCPP demonstrates superior activity in pigs compared to intramascular administration and significant antigen sparing potential. It also accelerates the microneedle fabrication process and reduces its dependence on the use of surfactants. In this way, PCPP-coated microneedles may enable effective intradermal vaccination from an adjuvanted patch delivery system. polyphosphazenes ͉ vaccine adjuvants

We reported previously that equine-2 influenza A virus (H3N8) had evolved into two genetically and antigenically distinct "Eurasian" and "American" lineages. Phylogenetic analysis, using the HA1 gene of more recent American isolates, indicated a further divergence of these viruses into three evolution lineages: A South American lineage, a Kentucky lineage, and a Florida lineage. These multiple evolution pathways were not due to geographic barriers, as viruses from different lineages co-circulated. For the Kentucky lineage, the evolution rate was estimated to be 0.89 amino acid substitutions per year, which agreed with the previously estimated rate of 0.8. For the South American lineage, the evolution rate was estimated to be only 0.27 amino acid substitutions per year. This low evolution rate was probably due to a unique alternating Ser138 to Ala138 substitutions at antigenic site A. For the Kentucky lineage, there was a preference for sequential nonsynonymous substitutions at antigenic site B, which was also a "hot spot" for amino acid substitutions. Convalescent sera had minimal cross-reactivity to viruses of different lineages, indicating antigenic distinctions among these viruses. In contrast to human H3N2 viruses, our results suggested that the evolution of equine-2 influenza virus resembled the multiple evolution pathways of influenza B virus.

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A case control study of foal diarrhoea in the United Kingdom was carried out over a 3-year period. Clostridium perfringens was significantly associated with foal diarrhoea (Odds Ratio (OR) = 3.0), being isolated from 57% of 421 animals with diarrhoea but from only 27% of 223 healthy foals. Also, C. perfringens was significantly associated with fatal diarrhoea (OR = 4.5). About half of diarrhoea with a fatal outcome was attributable to this organism. The other pathogens significantly associated with diarrhoea were rotavirus (OR = 5.6), Cryptosporidium spp. (OR = 3.2) and the nematode Strongyloides westeri, which was significant only when present in large numbers (> 2000 eggs/g of faeces: OR = 6.1). Salmonella spp. (OR = 14.2) and Cryptosporidium spp. (OR = 3.0) were the only other pathogens associated with fatal illness. Overall, C. perfringens, rotavirus, and large numbers of Cryptosporidium spp. or S. westeri were isolated from 80% of foals with diarrhoea. Thermophilic Campylobacter spp., Yersinia enterocolitica, Escherichia coli and other parasites were not associated with diarrhoea. Carriage of C. perfringens, rotavirus and Cryptosporidium spp. was significantly greater in healthy foals in contact with cases of diarrhoea than in foals that were not in contact with diarrhoea (P < 0.05). There were no statistical interactions between any of the pathogens associated with diarrhoea although separate cases from one location often involved more than one pathogen.