Oxidative stress has been implicated in the etiology of neurodegenerative disease, cancer and aging. Indeed, the reactive oxygen and nitrogen species generated by inflammatory cells that created oxidative stress is thought to be one of the major factor by which chronic inflammation contributes to neoplastic transformation as well as many other diseases. We have recently reported that mice lacking nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) are more susceptibility to dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis and colorectal carcinogenesis. Nrf2 is a basic leucine zipper redoxsensitive transcriptional factor that plays a center role in ARE (antioxidant response element)-mediated induction of phase II detoxifying and antioxidant enzymes. We found that increased susceptibility of Nrf2 deficient mice to DSS-induced colitis and colorectal cancer was associated with decreased expression of antioxidant/phase II detoxifying enzymes in parallel with upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines/biomarkers. These findings suggest that Nrf2 may play an important role in defense against oxidative stress possibly by activation of cellular antioxidant machinery as well as suppression of pro-inflammatory signaling pathways. In addition, in vivo and in vitro data generated from our laboratory suggest that many dietary compounds can differentially regulate Nrf2-mediated antioxidant/anti-inflammatory signaling pathways as the first line defense or induce apoptosis once the cells have been damaged. In this review, we will summarize our thoughts on the potential cross-talks between Nrf2 and NF-κB pathways. Although the mechanisms involved in the cross-talk between these signaling pathways are still illusive, targeting Nrf2-antioxidative stress signaling is an ideal strategy to prevent or treat oxidative-stress related diseases.

Sulforaphane, a dietary isothiocyanate, possesses potent chemopreventive effects through the induction of cellular detoxifying/antioxidant enzymes via the transcription factor nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). To investigate carcinogenesis mechanisms related to the regulation of Nrf2, we examined the tumor incidence and tumor numbers per mouse in Nrf2 wild-type (+/+) and Nrf2 knockout (À/À) mice. 7,12-Dimethylbenz(a)anthracene/12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate treatments resulted in an increase in the incidence of skin tumors and tumor numbers per mouse in both genotypes; however, both indices were markedly higher in Nrf2(À/À) mice as compared with Nrf2(+/+) mice. Western blot analysis revealed that Nrf2 as well as heme oxygenase-1, a protein regulated by Nrf2 were not expressed in skin tumors from mice of either genotype, whereas expression of heme oxygenase-1 in Nrf2(+/+) mice was much higher than that in Nrf2(À/À) mice in nontumor skin samples. Next, we examined the chemopreventive efficacy of sulforaphane in mice with both genotypes. Topical application of 100 nmol of sulforaphane once a day for 14 days prior to 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene/12-O -tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate applications decreased the incidence of skin tumor in the Nrf2(+/+) mice when compared with the vehicle-treated group. Importantly, there was no chemoprotective effect elicited by sulforaphane pretreatment in the Nrf2(À/À) mice group. Taken together, our results show for the first time that Nrf2(À/À) mice are more susceptible to skin tumorigenesis and that the chemopreventive effects of sulforaphane are mediated, at least in part, through Nrf2. (Cancer Res 2006; 66(16): 8293-6)

Substituted N-(4-(2-aminopyridin-4-yloxy)-3-fluoro-phenyl)-1-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-oxo-1,2-dihydropyridine-3-carboxamides were identified as potent and selective Met kinase inhibitors. Substitution of the pyridine 3-position gave improved enzyme potency, while substitution of the pyridone 4-position led to improved aqueous solubility and kinase selectivity. Analogue 10 demonstrated complete tumor stasis in a Met-dependent GTL-16 human gastric carcinoma xenograft model following oral administration. Because of its excellent in vivo efficacy and favorable pharmacokinetic and preclinical safety profiles, 10 has been advanced into phase I clinical trials.

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The up-regulation of phase II detoxifying and stressresponsive genes is believed to play an important role in cancer prevention, and many natural compounds have been shown to be potent inducers of these genes. Previous studies showed that the antioxidant responsive element (ARE), found in these genes, can be bound by the transcription factor Nrf2, and is responsive to the activation by chemopreventive compounds and by oxidative stress. In the present study, we investigated the roles of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and c-Jun-NH 2 -kinase (JNK) in the regulation of phenethyl isothiocyanate (PEITC) -induced and Nrf2-dependent ARE activity and ARE-driven heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) gene expression in PC-3 cells. ARE activity and HO-1 expression were strongly increased after treatment with PEITC. PEITC also increased the phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and JNK1/2 and caused release of Nrf2 from sequestration by Keap1, and its subsequent translocation into the nucleus. Importantly, Nrf2 was also translocated into the nucleus after transfection with ERK or JNK and that these activated ERK and JNK colocalized with Nrf2 in the nucleus. Activation of ERK and JNK signaling also resulted in the elevation of ARE activity and HO-1 expression. Importantly, PEITC-induced ARE activity was attenuated by inhibition of ERK and JNK signaling. In vitro kinase assays showed that both ERK2 and JNK1 could directly phosphorylate glutathione S-transferase -Nrf2 protein.Taken together, these results strongly suggest a model in which PEITC treatment of PC-3 cells activates ERK and JNK, which, in turn, phosphorylate Nrf2 and induce its translocation to the nucleus. Nuclear Nrf2 activates ARE elements and induces expression of stress-responsive genes, including HO-1.

Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a major component in green tea polyphenols, has been proven to suppress colonic tumorigenesis in animal models and epidemiological studies. As EGCG is retained in the gastrointestinal tract after oral administration, this pharmacokinetics property gives it the potential to function as a chemopreventive agent against colon cancer. In this study, human colorectal carcinoma HT-29 cells were treated with EGCG to examine the anti-proliferative and pro-apoptotic effects of EGCG, as well as the molecular mechanism underlying these effects. Cell viability assay, nuclear staining, DNA fragmentation, caspase assay, cytochrome c release, DiOC6(3) staining, mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) phosphorylation and trypan blue exclusion assays, were utilized to dissect the signaling pathways induced by EGCG. After 36 h treatment, EGCG inhibited HT-29 cell growth with an IC50 of approximately 100 microM. HT-29 cells treated with doses higher than 100 microM showed apparent nuclear condensation and fragmentation, which was confirmed by DNA laddering. Caspase-3 and -9 activation was detected after 12 h treatment, accompanied by mitochondrial transmembrane potential transition and cytochrome c release. Activation of MAPKs was detected as early signaling event elicited by EGCG. Inhibition of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway showed the involvement of JNK in EGCG-induced cytochrome c release and cell death. EGCG-induced JNK activation was blocked by the antioxidants glutathione and N-acetyl-l-cysteine, suggesting that the cell death signaling was potentially triggered by oxidative stress. In summary, our results from this study suggest that in HT-29 human colon cancer cells (i) EGCG treatment causes damage to mitochondria, and (ii) JNK mediates EGCG-induced apoptotic cell death.