Executive functions, including working memory and inhibition, are of central importance to much of human behavior. Interventions intended to improve executive functions might therefore serve an important purpose. Previous studies show that working memory can be improved by training, but it is unknown if this also holds for inhibition, and whether it is possible to train executive functions in preschoolers. In the present study, preschool children received computerized training of either visuo-spatial working memory or inhibition for 5 weeks. An active control group played commercially available computer games, and a passive control group took part in only pre- and posttesting. Children trained on working memory improved significantly on trained tasks; they showed training effects on non-trained tests of spatial and verbal working memory, as well as transfer effects to attention. Children trained on inhibition showed a significant improvement over time on two out of three trained task paradigms, but no significant improvements relative to the control groups on tasks measuring working memory or attention. In neither of the two interventions were there effects on non-trained inhibitory tasks. The results suggest that working memory training can have significant effects also among preschool children. The finding that inhibition could not be improved by either one of the two training programs might be due to the particular training program used in the present study or possibly indicate that executive functions differ in how easily they can be improved by training, which in turn might relate to differences in their underlying psychological and neural processes.

A cross-sectional study using 92 children aged 6 to 13 years investigated the dimensionality and the development of executive functioning. The measures were drawn from developmentally relevant conceptualizations of executive functioning and included a go/no-go task, a verbal fluency task, a continuous performance task, a Stroop-like task, a hand movements task, and a digit span task. Analyses revealed 3 dimensions interpreted as Disinhibition, Speed/arousal, and Working memory/Fluency. Age and sex differences were analyzed for the delineated functions, which means that the results may be taken to represent age effects at the level of specific processes within the executive domain rather than on single tests. Age-dependent changes in children's performance on all 3 dimensions were demonstrated, with 3 particularly active stages of maturation: early childhood (6-8 years of age), middle childhood (9-12 years of age), and during early adolescence. Sex differences were only found for the speed/arousal dimension. The results are discussed in terms of 2 developmental executive function frameworks (Barkley, 1997b; Roberts & Pennington, 1996), where inhibition and the interaction between inhibition and working memory, respectively, are seen as key in the development of executive functioning.

This study investigated relations between emotionality, emotion regulation, and children's behavioral adaptation in a longitudinal design. Mothers rated emotionality and emotion regulation related to anger, fear, and positive emotions-exuberance for 151 children at age 5 and later at age 6 years 6 months. Emotionality and emotion regulation measures were modestly related. Preschool ratings at age 6 (n = 125), maternal ratings at age 6 years 6 months (n = 133), and elementary school ratings at age 8 (n = 135) of problems and competence were also collected. High anger emotionality and low regulation of positive emotions and exuberance predicted externalizing problem behavior and prosocial behavior. High fear emotionality and low fear regulation predicted internalizing problem behavior. There were few interactive effects of emotionality and regulation.

This study provides evidence that prenatal exposure to stress and smoking is independently associated with later symptoms of ADHD in human children, particularly for boys. Because stress and smoking are relatively common during pregnancy, and yet preventable, these results are of public health significance.

This study examined the predictive relations from symptoms of Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and executive functioning (EF) to social and school functioning in 112 (62 girls) school children. High levels of teacher and parent ratings of ADHD symptoms at the ages of 8-8 1/2 years, and poor EF measured at the age of 8 1/2, were associated with poor social functioning measured by peer nominations and poor teacher ratings of school functioning at the age of 9 1/2. ADHD symptoms independently predicted social and school functioning, whereas EF independently predicted only school functioning. Interaction effects between ADHD and EF and between EF and gender were found: At high levels of symptoms of inattention, the poorer the EF, the greater the need for special education. At high levels of symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity, the poorer the EF, the higher the levels of physical aggression. Girls with poor EF were less accepted by peers than equivalent boys.

The aim of the present study was to investigate different neuropsychological impairments and comorbid behavioral problems in relation to symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), studying the independent effects of different functions as well as specific relations to symptoms of hyperactivity/impulsivity and inattention. A community-based sample of school children (n = 182; the higher end of the ADHD symptom range was oversampled) completed neuropsychological tasks designed to measure executive function (EF), state regulation and delay aversion. Behavioral symptoms were measured through parental and teacher ratings of the DSM-IV criteria for ADHD and Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD). Both categorical and dimensional analyses were used to acquire a deeper understanding of ADHD. The results supported the notion that EF and state regulation constitute independent pathways to ADHD, primarily to symptoms of inattention. In addition, the present study points to the importance of viewing ADHD as a heterogeneous condition also with regard to the differential impact of neuropsychological functioning and comorbidity on different ADHD symptom groups and the two ADHD symptom domains.

A longitudinal sample of 96 children was followed from 15 months of age to 8-9 years. Attachment relationships were studied in infancy with the Strange Situation and at school age with the Separation Anxiety Test. Social functioning was studied at school age through mother and teacher ratings, observations at school, and in children's selfreports. Predictive results showed that infants who had been secure as infants were more socially active, positive and popular at school age, and tended to report less social anxiety than children who had been insecure. Outcomes did not differentiate between children who had been anxious-avoidant and anxious-ambivalent. In spite of nonsignificant continuity between attachment security at infancy and school age, the associations to social functioning were similar.One of the most important childhood tasks is to establish successful peer relations. Realization of the importance of peer relations in social development has generated an extensive interest in the construct of social competence and in the developmental course of successful social functioning. Attachment theory has provided a theoretical framework for understanding such development in terms of the parent-child relationship. Elicker, Englund and Sroufe (1992) specified three reasons as to why a secure attachment relationship should promote later peer competence. First, the history of availability and responsivity on the part of the caregiver should lead to positive social expectations in the child. Secondly, through taking part in a relationship with an empathic and responsive caregiver, the child also learns about reciprocity and the nature of empathic relating. Finally, the history of responsive care will generate a sense of self-worth in the child.The view of peer competence conveyed by Elicker and coworkers concurs with the notion that competence aspects of peer interaction should encompass positive aspects of social interaction such as prosocial behaviors, positive affect, and social initiative and thus be distinguished from behavioral problems (cf. Tremblay,

Investigated the relation among response inhibition, hyperactivity, and conduct problems in a nonclinical sample of 115 preschool children, using 2 different types of go/no-go tasks well as a Stroop-like task. In line with the assumption that hyperactivity is related to disinhibition, the results showed that it was the measures of response inhibition, and not other performance measures, that were related to teacher ratings of hyperactivity. There was also a significant relation between response inhibition and conduct problems. Interestingly, the correlation between response inhibition and conduct problems was not significant when partialling out the effect of hyperactivity, whereas the correlation between inhibition and hyperactivity did remain significant when controlling for conduct problems. Although the association between inhibition, hyperactivity, and conduct problems appeared to be partly different for boys and girls, these differences were not statistically significant.