Diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis is often difficult. Although positive chest radiographic findings or a positive tuberculin skin test supports the diagnosis, negative results do not exclude extrapulmonary tuberculosis. However, recognition and understanding of the radiologic findings of extrapulmonary tuberculosis can help in diagnosis. The spine is the most common site of skeletal involvement. The femur, tibia, and small bones of the hands and feet are most commonly involved by tuberculous osteomyelitis. Tuberculosis of the joints is characteristically monoarticular; the knee and hip are most frequently affected. Central nervous system tuberculosis takes various forms, including meningitis, tuberculoma, abscess, cerebritis, and miliary tuberculosis. Ileocecal involvement is seen in 80%-90% of patients with abdominal tuberculosis. The most common manifestation of abdominal tuberculosis is lymphadenopathy. Genitourinary tuberculosis is the most common manifestation of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Lymphatic tuberculosis is more common among children, with cervical or supraclavicular nodes most frequently involved. Tuberculosis of the breast is extremely rare and occurs most often in young, multiparous, lactating women. The radiologic features of extrapulmonary tuberculosis mimic those of many diseases. A high level of suspicion is required, especially in high-risk populations. A positive culture or histologic analysis of biopsy specimens is still required in many patients for definitive diagnosis.

MDCT exhibited various sternal variations and anomalies. Sternal foramen is a frequent minor anomaly and generally associated with sternal sclerotic bands. Early manubriosternal and sternoxiphoidal fusions can be seen in early adulthood without osteodegeneration. Double-ended xiphoid process and single xiphoidal foramen are frequent sternal variations. Awareness of MDCT appearances of sternal variations and anomalies provides a better differential diagnosis with pathologic conditions.

Hydatid disease (HD) may develop in almost any part of the body. The liver is the most frequently involved organ (75%), followed by the lung (15%) and the remainder of the body (10%). Hydatid cysts with unusual localizations may cause serious problems in the differential diagnosis. In this article the various imaging findings of hydatid cysts with unusual localizations are reviewed, based on our experience. Findings in brain, heart, pericard, kidney, intraperitoneum, retroperitoneum, bone, soft tissue, and breast are discussed. Hydatid disease should be considered in the differential diagnosis of all cystic masses in all anatomic locations, especially when they occur in areas where the disease is endemic. The combination of clinical history, imaging findings, and serologic test results usually help the diagnosis.

Although not characteristic for this entity, asymmetric density on mammography, solitary or multiple clustered heterogeneous hypoechogenicity with a tubular configuration on sonography and round, smooth-contoured masslike lesion with rim enhancement or segmental non-mass-like lesion on MRI are the most common features of the disease.

There is a substantial range of drawbacks and complications associated with the use of self-expanding nitinol stents for palliation of malignant esophageal strictures. A covering would be necessary to prevent tumor ingrowth.