In order to confront the constant decline in global biological diversity, amelioration strategies are needed for threatened species to design reintroduction policies, particularly in plants with critical reproduction steps, such as orchids. Orchids are part of a highly diverse plant family, with several species under imminent extinction risk. This is the case of Chilean Orchidaceae, which has shown a constant decay in their populations due to an increase in the alteration processes of their natural distribution habitats. Successful orchid reintroductions require a full understanding of orchid mycorrhizal fungi and their dynamic according to different developmental stages and environmental conditions because orchid seeds need mycorrhizal fungi to obtain nutritional compounds at early developmental stages. This article performed a critical literature review of the ecological studies conducted on Chilean orchids and their relationships with mycorrhizal fungi in order to focus on the best scientific approach to achieve successful restoration programs involving orchid seeds and compatible mycorrhizal fungi.
Biodiversity of tropical Saturniidae, as measured through traditionally described and catalogued species, strongly risks pooling cryptic species under one name. We examined the DNA barcodes, morphology, habitus and ecology of 32 ‘well known’ species of dry forest saturniid moths from Area de Conservacion Guanacaste (ACG) in north-western Costa Rica and found that they contain as many as 49 biological entities that are probably separate species. The most prominent splitting of traditional species – Eacles imperialis, Automeris zugana, Automeris tridens, Othorene verana, Hylesia dalina, Dirphia avia, Syssphinx molina, Syssphinx colla, and Syssphinx quadrilineata – is where one species was believed to breed in dry forest and rain forest, but is found to be two biological entities variously distinguishable by DNA barcodes and morphology, habitus, and/or microecological distribution. This implies that ‘standard’ biological information about each traditional species may be an unconscious mix of interspecific information, and begs renewed DNA barcoding, closer attention to so-called intraspecific variation, and increased museum collection and curation of specimens from more individual and ecologically characterised sites – as well as eventually more species descriptions. Simultaneously, this inclusion of sibling species as individual entities in biodiversity studies, rather than pooled under one traditional name, reduces the degree of ecological and evolutionary generalisation perceived by the observer.
We report one year (2013-2014) of biomonitoring an insect community in a tropical old-growth rainforest, during construction of an industrial-level geothermal electricity project. This is the first-year reaction by the species-rich insect biodiversity; six subsequent years are being analyzed now. The site is on the margin of a UNESCO Natural World Heritage Site - Área de Conservación Guanacaste (ACG), northwestern Costa Rica. This biomonitoring is part of Costa Rica’s ongoing efforts to sustainably retain its wild biodiversity through biodevelopmental integration with its societies. Essential tools are geothermal engineering needs, entomological knowledge, insect species-rich forest, government-NGO integration, common sense, DNA barcoding for species-level identification, and Malaise traps. This research is tailored for integration with its society at the product level. We combine an academic view with on-site engineering decisions. This biomonitoring requires alpha-level DNA barcoding combined with centuries of morphology-based entomological taxonomy and ecology. Not all desired insect community analyses are performed; they are for data from subsequent years combined with this year. We provide enough analysis to be used by both guilds now. This biomonitoring has shown, for the first year, that the geothermal project impacts only the biodiversity within a zone less than 50 m from the project margin.
Aims: To investigate the in vitro production of metal‐chelating compounds by ectomycorrhizal fungi collected from pine plantations in southern Chile. Methods and Results: Scleroderma verrucosum, Suillus luteus and two isolates of Rhizopogon luteolus were grown in solid and liquid modified Melin–Norkans (MMN) media with and without iron addition and the production of iron‐chelating compounds was determined by Chrome Azurol S (CAS) assay. The presence of hydroxamate and catecholate‐type compounds and organic acids was also investigated in liquid medium. All isolates produced iron‐chelating compounds as detected by CAS assay, and catecholates, hydroxamates as well as oxalic, citric and succinic acids were also detected in all fungal cultures. Scleroderma verrucosum produced the greatest amounts of catecholates and hydroxamates whereas the highest amounts of organic acids were detected in S. luteus. Nevertheless, the highest catecholate, hydroxamate and organic acid concentrations did not correlate with the highest CAS reaction which was observed in R. luteolus (Yum isolate). Conclusions: Ectomycorrhizal fungi produced a variety of metal‐chelating compounds when grown in liquid MMN medium. However, the addition of iron to all fungi cultures reduced the CAS reaction, hydroxamate and organic acid concentrations. Catecholate production was affected differently by iron, depending on the fungal isolate. Significance and Impact of the Study: The ectomycorrhizal fungi described in this study have never been reported to produce metal‐chelating compound production. Moreover, apart from some wood‐rotting fungi, this is the first evidence of the presence of catecholates in R. luteolus, S. luteus and S. verrucosum cultures.
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