This article reports a meta-analysis of studies examining the predictive validity of the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and explicit measures of bias for a wide range of criterion measures of discrimination. The meta-analysis estimates the heterogeneity of effects within and across 2 domains of intergroup bias (interracial and interethnic), 6 criterion categories (interpersonal behavior, person perception, policy preference, microbehavior, response time, and brain activity), 2 versions of the IAT (stereotype and attitude IATs), 3 strategies for measuring explicit bias (feeling thermometers, multi-item explicit measures such as the Modern Racism Scale, and ad hoc measures of intergroup attitudes and stereotypes), and 4 criterion-scoring methods (computed majority-minority difference scores, relative majority-minority ratings, minority-only ratings, and majority-only ratings). IATs were poor predictors of every criterion category other than brain activity, and the IATs performed no better than simple explicit measures. These results have important implications for the construct validity of IATs, for competing theories of prejudice and attitude-behavior relations, and for measuring and modeling prejudice and discrimination.

The authors reanalyzed data from 2 influential studies-A. R. McConnell and J. M. Leibold (2001) and J. C. Ziegert and P. J. Hanges (2005)-that explore links between implicit bias and discriminatory behavior and that have been invoked to support strong claims about the predictive validity of the Implicit Association Test. In both of these studies, the inclusion of race Implicit Association Test scores in regression models reduced prediction errors by only tiny amounts, and Implicit Association Test scores did not permit prediction of individual-level behaviors. Furthermore, the results were not robust when the impact of rater reliability, statistical specifications, and/or outliers were taken into account, and reanalysis of A. R. McConnell & J. M. Leibold (2001) revealed a pattern of behavior consistent with a pro-Black behavioral bias, rather than the anti-Black bias suggested in the original study.Keywords: Implicit Association Test, predictive validity, discrimination, implicit biasThe Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee & Schwartz, 1998) has become one of psychology's most popular exports to the wider social sciences and the law (e.g., Lane, Kang, & Banaji, 2007). The measure's popularity is easy to grasp: IAT researchers often inform test takers they harbor implicit or unconscious biases toward minorities that many test takers disavow at a conscious level (Dasgupta, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2003). According to the much-visited Project Implicit Web site, without constant vigilance these implicit biases may lead to unwanted behaviors:People who hold egalitarian conscious attitudes in the face of automatic White preferences may [be] able to function in nonprejudiced fashion partly by making active efforts to prevent their automatic White preference from producing discriminatory behavior. However, when they relax these active efforts, these nonprejudiced people may be likely to show discrimination in thought or behavior. (IAT Corporation, n.d., Question 16) It is this claimed connection between implicit attitudes and discrimination that can make IAT feedback particularly disturbing to test takers. It also is the feature that makes research on the IAT of broad interdisciplinary interest. If the race IAT reliably predicts discriminatory behavior that cannot be consciously controlled, then society should take note. As but one example, the great majority of White Americans who have taken the IAT have been classified as anti-Black. This then points to an epidemic, either of unconscious racism (Greenwald & Krieger, 2006) or of falsepositive accusations of unconscious racism (Mitchell & Tetlock, 2006).Given the importance of the link between IAT scores and behavior, one might expect to find a large body of data establishing this connection-indeed, Greenwald and Krieger (2006, p. 961) described the evidence that implicit bias leads to discriminatory behavior as "already substantial." In fact, researchers in only a few studies have examined the ability of the IAT to predict behavior of any type, and resear...

nanotube is observed and the lower side of the wall corresponds to the outside of the nanotube. The thickness of the wall is about 3.3 nm and it consists of many parallel graphene layers. Each layer, however, curves and wrinkles to some extent, indicating lower crystallinity of the present nanotubes than the ones prepared by other methods, such as arc discharge synthesis. It should be noted that this image does not exhibit any clear difference in crystallinity between pure carbon layers (upper half of the wall) and N-doped layers (the lower half). In the case of nanotubes from P-A CVD, their HRTEM images (not shown here) were found to be very similar to the image of Figure 4, and again there was no crystallinity difference between N-doped and undoped multiwalls.In conclusion, this study has demonstrated the fabrication of aligned carbon nanotubes with double coaxial structure of N-doped and undoped multiwalls. It can be determined whether the N-doped layer belongs to the inner or outer multiwalls by changing the sequence of the two-step CVD process. Moreover, the thickness of both the N-doped and pure carbon layers is controllable by changing each CVD period. The use of the AAO film as a template enables us for the first time to precisely control the nitrogen location in N-doped carbon nanotubes. Since nitrogen doping would enhance the electron-conducting properties of carbon nanotubes, the present carbon nanotubes may exhibit excellent performance as field electron emitters. The present technique opens up a novel route for the synthesis of heteroatom-doped carbon nanotubes with double coaxial structure and furthermore this will lead to the production of coaxial heterojunctions (pn, npn, or pnp) by stacking N-and B-doped layers. ExperimentalBy anodic oxidation of an aluminum plate, an AAO film with a channel diameter of 30 nm and a thickness of about 70 lm was prepared. Details are given elsewhere [13]. The resultant AAO film was placed on a quartz boat in a horizontal quartz reactor (inside diameter 55 mm). The reactor temperature was then increased to 800 C under N 2 flow. When the temperature reached 800 C, propylene gas (1.2 % in N 2 ) was passed through the reactor at a total flow rate of 1000 cm 3 (STP)/min. After the 2 h carbon deposition from propylene, the reactor was cooled down to room temperature and the carbon-coated AAO film taken out. In the second step, the carbon-coated film was placed in the reactor again and acetonitrile vapor (4.2 % in N 2 of 500 cm 3 (STP)/min) was allowed to flow over the film at 800 C. The vapor was generated by bubbling N 2 through acetonitrile liquid in a saturator kept at 0 C. This acetonitrile CVD was performed for 5 h. After this two-step sequential CVD process, the doubly coated AAO film was treated with 10 M NaOH solution at 150 C for 6 h to remove the alumina template, thereby liberating the nanotubes from the template AAO film.The carbon-coated AAO films and the corresponding carbon nanotubes were analyzed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The samples were...

Political economists agree that a trade-offexists between equality and efficiency. Using a hypothetical society paradigm, we manipulated the mean income (representing efficiency) and income variability (representing equality) of distributions of wealth and the correlation between wealth and effort within a society. Subjects made all pairwise comparisons of distributions within societies of differing meritocracy. A "maximin" principle best described trade-off resolution strategies when effort and outcome were weakly linked: People maximized the minimum standard of living within a society. A compromise principle best described preferences when income was tightly linked to effort: People rejected distributions in which some citizens fell below the "poverty line" but maximized efficiency above this constraint. Ideological polarization was pronounced under moderate meritocracy; here liberals could focus on the role of chance and conservatives on the role of effort and ability.

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