In an initial phase of this study, a participant stepped in instructed synchrony to two types of auditory stimuli: either to the isochronous beat of a metronome - a presumed neutral stimulus or what might be considered a most rudimentary form of music - or to the beat of a broad-spectrum of single genre 4/4-meter music continuously over a 2-mile forested paved loop track. As in the prior companion study (Shay, 2021), improved resolution and attainment of steady state for walking step length and speed were realized by conducting the trials over this long-distance course. In the current study, a further improvement in resolution was realized by using music playlists each at a single BPM tempo, and by conducting the trials at all tempos (1 BPM spacings) in the resonance zone of 110-130 BPM for both auditory stimuli. Like the companion study which was conducted over a wider tempo range of 90-130 BPM with lower resolution playlists and wider tempo spacings, the current study also produced greater step length and speed on music at all 21 tempos examined. The music was more stimulating with an average improvement over metronome of about 7% throughout the tempo range. However, with the improved resolution capability of the current study, several unexpected results were obtained. Most prominent was the observations that mean step lengths and resultant mean speeds were significantly greater at some tempos than others producing spectral peaks and valleys, not just when stepping in synchrony to the music, but also when stepping in synchrony to the metronome. Confirming the studies of others, a strong speed peak was observed with music at 120 BPM (2 Hz), a known frequency of human resonance. In the current study, however, a very prominent peak was also observed at 120 BPM when stepping to the metronome. A related surprising observation was that the peaks for both stimuli were evenly spaced at tempo-cadences of 112, 116, 120, 124, and 128 BPM-SPM – all distant harmonics of 4. Additionally, the tempo location of peaks and valleys for music and metronome were similar – they generally mirrored each other. Although metronome beats have previously been assumed to be neutral or lacking in entrainment stimulation, the metronome beats appeared to induce significant vigor at least at some tempos. Based on those findings, a hypothesis was proposed for a second phase of this current study - walking in absence of any auditory or other repetitive stimulus over the same range of tempos should result in vigor response below that of the metronome. With the aid of accurate pedometers, the participant stepped multiple laps over the same 2-mile course at a variety of self-paced or micro-cued cadences without any auditory or other stimulus. The results provide compelling evidence in support of the hypothesis. The resulting speed-cadence regression curve produced without stimulus was parallel to and below the regression curves of music and metronome. The beat of the metronome does appear to be vigor entraining by some mechanism, and without an auditory stimulus, a reduced vigor response is obtained over the same tempo range that appears to have no structure as suggested by the absence of peaks at 120 BPM and other harmonic 4 tempos.The mechanism by which the metronome seemingly imparts vigor is unknown. Although metronome lacks the musical elements of groove, it is speculated that metronome vigor may be due to beat salience alone which is considered higher than that of most music. Another possibility is that conscious or unconscious mental rhythms are developed during walking while listening to the metronome over long distance providing metrical stimulation. These concepts and others will be examined in a subsequent investigation and companion paper, Part C. The 4 BPM spacing of peaks in the auditory speed spectra are compelling since they appear in both the metronome and music speed-cadence spectra. It is speculated that this phenomenon may be due to harmonics within the human motor system that are more responsive (more efficient for vigor entrainment or biomechanics) at those frequencies with prominence possibly centered around 120 BPM. Further investigations by others into the findings of this study are encouraged to better understand vigor entrainment of the human motor system and potential for advances in exercise performance and the gait rehabilitation of human movement disorders.
The effect of music loudness on human movement vigor in walking, running and some exercise and sports domain activities has been sparsely studied. The few prior studies employed varied experimental conditions and sometimes with mixed results. Although the isochronous beat of a metronome might also be considered music in its simplest form, no previous studies have reported the effect of metronome sound intensity on vigor in physical activities. Employing a single-case experimental design, this study examined the effects of sound intensity on stepping vigor for both music and metronome auditory stimuli. Experimental conditions included stepping to a single tempo of 116 BPM during synchronous walking around a 2-mi greenway loop track. With walking synchrony confirmed at 100% and lap distance a constant, lap speeds for each stimulus-intensity condition were determined from lap times with high precision. Randomized data were collected over a six-month period with six repetitions for each stimulus-intensity pair.For music, intensity level was varied for three different playlists of familiar/enjoyable music at three normal listening levels of 69.3, 75.0, and 80.2 dB (± 0.6 dB at each level). Over this relatively narrow intensity range of 11 dB, step length and commensurate walking speed increased 3.7% - 5.7% (ANOVA pooled p < 0.0001 for each playlist). The speed-dB response for the music composite was approximately linear over the range, and the music was strongly activating (more step-length and proportional speed) relative to a no sound (no stimulus) condition at the same regression tempo/cadence.For metronome, 5 different levels of sound intensity were employed over a range of 58.9 – 82.0 dB (± max of 0.5 dB at each level). An unexpected increase in speed of 12.2% was obtained over the 23 dB range (ANOVA pooled p < 0.0001). The speed-dB response was linear (R2 = 0.993). As expected, vigor response was greater for music than for metronome at equivalent intensity levels. However, another unexpected finding for metronome was that at higher intensity levels the metronome stimulus was activating, and at lower levels it was relaxing relative to the no sound condition at the same regression tempo/cadence. The increase in speed per unit increase in dB for metronome (0.53% / dB) was surprisingly greater than for music (0.34 – 0.52 % / dB). This might be attributed to a higher beat salience for metronome.Within the conditions and parameters of this study, these findings clearly showed a positive effect of sound intensity on vigor response for both music and metronome during synchronous walking. The findings have performance implications for walkers and perhaps for runners and in some other rhythmic physical activities. The findings may also contribute to a further understanding of the human auditory sensorimotor function and for intervention in some human gait disorders.
Background: Beat supports meter, meter is a fundamental component of rhythm, and rhythm is an indispensable element of music. Music that elicits a pleasurable and almost irresistible urge to move is said to have groove. Groove music has one or more stimulating qualities, and certain rhythms have been strongly associated with the phenomenon. In this study, basic meter, meter without secondary accenting, is examined as a possible underlying component of groove. With sound intensity of auditory stimuli controlled, basic meter is created with and along with metronome and examined for effect on synchronous walking vigor with comparison to quadruple meter groove music and a free walking silent condition at equivalent cadence.Methods: Employing a singlecase full factorial design randomized with six replicates for each paired tempometer condition, participant synchronous walking speeds were examined at four metronome tempos (112, 116, 117, and 120 BPM) and seven basic meter time signatures of increasing monotonia (2/4, 3/4, 4/4, 5/4, 7/4, 10/4, and ~4600/4 [no meter] plus stimulating 4/4 music and a regression determined silent condition. Internal basic meter was created by repetitively whisper counting time signatures, one per lap, over conventional metronome beats. Basic external meter was created at one tempo (116 BPM) with an accenting metronome. With walking confirmed at 100% synchrony and lap distance a constant, lap speeds for each paired condition were determined from lap times with high precision. Results: Over the range of increasing metronome time signatures from 2/4 to [no meter], a peak in vigor at 4/4 meter was observed for even tempos and for 3/4 at the odd tempo with both statistically similar to the stimulating 4/4 music. The results for external and internal meter were similar, and as time signature increased beyond the apex for speed, vigor declined to the approximate level of [no meter] and the silent condition. The 2/4 time signature seemed an anomaly also with vigor similar to [no meter] and the silent condition.Some Tentative Conclusions: 1) some basic meters at or near the 4/4 time signature are quite stimulating, 2) stimulating basic meter is a potential element of groove, 3) the stimulating quality of quadruple meter supports a human preference for a four beat meter, and 4) basic meters with high monotonia lack stimulation Potential Benefits: The findings of this study may have performance implications for walkers, runners and in some other rhythmic physical activities. The findings may also contribute to a further understanding of the human auditory sensorimotor system and to possible intervention in human gait disorders.
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