In plants, protein-coding mRNAs can move via the phloem vasculature to distant tissues, where they may act as non-cellautonomous signals. Emerging work has identified many phloem-mobile mRNAs, but little is known regarding RNA motifs triggering mobility, the extent of mRNA transport, and the potential of transported mRNAs to be translated into functional proteins after transport. To address these aspects, we produced reporter transcripts harboring tRNA-like structures (TLSs) that were found to be enriched in the phloem stream and in mRNAs moving over chimeric graft junctions. Phenotypic and enzymatic assays on grafted plants indicated that mRNAs harboring a distinctive TLS can move from transgenic roots into wild-type leaves and from transgenic leaves into wild-type flowers or roots; these mRNAs can also be translated into proteins after transport. In addition, we provide evidence that dicistronic mRNA:tRNA transcripts are frequently produced in Arabidopsis thaliana and are enriched in the population of graft-mobile mRNAs. Our results suggest that tRNA-derived sequences with predicted stem-bulge-stem-loop structures are sufficient to mediate mRNA transport and seem to be necessary for the mobility of a large number of endogenous transcripts that can move through graft junctions.

Mesenchymal stem or stromal cells (MSC) have proven to offer great promise for cell-based therapies and tissue engineering applications, as these cells are capable of extensive self-renewal and display a multilineage differentiation potential. Furthermore, MSC were shown to exhibit immunomodulatory properties and display supportive functions through parakrine effects. Besides bone marrow (BM), still today the most common source of MSC, these cells were found to be present in a variety of postnatal and extraembryonic tissues and organs as well as in a large variety of fetal tissues. Over the last decade, the human umbilical cord and human amnion have been found to be a rich and valuable source of MSC that is bio-equivalent to BM-MSC. Since these tissues are discarded after birth, the cells are easily accessible without ethical concerns.

SUMMARYIn plants, small interfering RNAs (siRNA) and microRNAs move to distant tissues where they control numerous developmental and physiological processes such as morphogenesis and stress responses. Grafting techniques and transient expression systems have been employed to show that sequence-specific siRNAs with a size of 21-24 nucleotides traffic to distant organs. We used inverted-repeat constructs producing siRNA targeting the meiosis factor DISRUPTED MEIOTIC cDNA 1 (DMC1) and GFP to test whether silencing signals move into meiotically active tissues. In grafted Nicotiana tabacum, a transgenic DMC1 siRNA signal made in source tissues preferably entered the anthers formed in the first flowers. Here, the DMC1 siRNA interfered with meiotic progression and, consequently, the flowers were at least partially sterile. In agro-infiltrated N. benthamiana plants, a GFP siRNA signal produced in leaves was allocated and active in most flower tissues including anthers. In hypocotyl-grafted Arabidopsis thaliana plants, the DMC1 silencing signal consistently appeared in leaves, petioles, and stem, and only a small number of plants displayed DMC1 siRNA signals in flowers. In all three tested plant species the systemic silencing signal penetrated male sporogenic tissues suggesting that plants harbour an endogenous long-distance small RNA transport pathway facilitating siRNA signalling into meiotically active cells.

Plasmodesmata establish a pathway for the intercellular trafficking of viral movement proteins and endogenous non-cell-autonomous proteins, such as the two closely related meristem-maintaining KNOTTED1-like homeobox (KNOX) proteins Zea mays KNOTTED1 (KN1) and Arabidopsis thaliana SHOOTMERISTEMLESS (STM). KNOX family members are DNA binding proteins that regulate the transcriptional activity of target genes in conjunction with BEL1-like homeodomain proteins. It has been shown previously, using in vivo transport assays, that the C-terminal domain of KN1, including the homeodomain, is necessary and sufficient for cell-to-cell transport through plasmodesmata. Here, using interaction and coexpression assays, we demonstrate that the microtubule-associated and viral movement protein binding protein MPB2C from Nicotiana tabacum, and its homolog in Arabidopsis, At MPB2C, are KN1/STM binding factors. Interaction between the MPB2C proteins and KN1/STM was mapped to the KN1 homeodomain, a region not essential for heterodimerization with BEL1. Expression of MPB2C in single cells prevented KN1 cell-to-cell movement. Furthermore, in vivo trichome rescue studies established that MPB2C negatively regulates KN1 association to plasmodesmata and, consequently, cell-to-cell transport. These findings are discussed in terms of the role played by MPB2C proteins in regulating the cell-to-cell trafficking of homeodomain proteins in plants.