Mass incarceration and its ill effects remains a major social problem in the United States. Those exiting the criminal justice system reenter society with the label of exconvict, a label that is permanent, highly stigmatized in American society, and has serious potential ramifications for successful reintegration, including: access to employment, higher education, and housing; acceptance in their communities; and successful personal relationships. The purpose of this study was to explore (1) anticipated stigma, (2) actual experienced stigma, and (3) the stigma management strategies that formerly incarcerated individuals employed in their personal and occupational lives. Drawing from a modified labeling theory (MLT) approach, we conducted in-depth interviews with 17 men and women who had been formerly incarcerated for felony offenses. Our findings revealed that the formerly incarcerated continue to experience stigma, often expected that they would, and utilized tactics (e.g. preventative telling, secrecy, and withdraw) consistent with MLT. Additionally, our findings revealed that these strategies are not static and participants altered their strategies throughout their life course and based upon social and economic contexts.

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The United States is home to the world's largest correctional system where the majority of released ex-convicts reoffend. Consequently, accessing successful methods of reducing recidivism has become tantamount, with education as the most powerful predictor of decreased recidivism. This research found gendered differences in educational program usage based on group membership. Participation in prison parenting groups was found to be a greater predictor of college and vocational educational program usage for women than for men. For male inmates, membership in any type of organized group activity was found to predict greater educational program usage in college and vocational education programs.

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