Dystrophin and utrophin are highly similar proteins that both link cortical actin filaments with a complex of sarcolemmal glycoproteins, yet localize to different subcellular domains within normal muscle cells. In mdx mice and Duchenne muscular dystrophy patients, dystrophin is lacking and utrophin is consequently up-regulated and redistributed to locations normally occupied by dystrophin. Transgenic overexpression of utrophin has been shown to significantly improve aspects of the disease phenotype in the mdx mouse; therefore, utrophin up-regulation is under intense investigation as a potential therapy for Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Here we biochemically compared the previously documented microtubule binding activity of dystrophin with utrophin and analyzed several transgenic mouse models to identify phenotypes of the mdx mouse that remain despite transgenic utrophin overexpression. Our in vitro analyses revealed that dystrophin binds microtubules with high affinity and pauses microtubule polymerization, whereas utrophin has no activity in either assay. We also found that transgenic utrophin overexpression does not correct subsarcolemmal microtubule lattice disorganization, loss of torque production after in vivo eccentric contractions, or physical inactivity after mild exercise. Finally, our data suggest that exerciseinduced inactivity correlates with loss of sarcolemmal neuronal NOS localization in mdx muscle, whereas loss of in vivo torque production after eccentric contraction-induced injury is associated with microtubule lattice disorganization.

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Mutations in dystrophin can lead to Duchenne muscular dystrophy or the more mild form of the disease, Becker muscular dystrophy. The hinge 3 region in the rod domain of dystrophin is particularly prone to deletion mutations. In-frame deletions of hinge 3 are predicted to lead to BMD, however the severity of disease can vary considerably. Here we performed extensive structure-function analyses of truncated dystrophins with modified hinges and spectrin-like repeats in mdx mice. We found that the polyproline site in hinge 2 profoundly influences the functional capacity of a microdystrophinΔR4-R23/ΔCT with a large deletion in the hinge 3 region. Inclusion of polyproline in microdystrophinΔR4-R23/ΔCT led to small myofibers (12% smaller than wild-type), Achilles myotendinous disruption, ringed fibers, and aberrant neuromuscular junctions in the mdx gastrocnemius muscles. Replacing hinge 2 of microdystrophinΔR4-R23/ΔCT with hinge 3 significantly improved the functional capacity to prevent muscle degeneration, increase muscle fiber area, and maintain the junctions. We conclude that the rigid α-helical structure of the polyproline site significantly impairs the functional capacity of truncated dystrophins to maintain appropriate connections between the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix.

Mammalian skeletal muscle is broadly characterized by the presence of two distinct categories of muscle fibers called type I "red" slow twitch and type II "white" fast twitch, which display marked differences in contraction strength, metabolic strategies, and susceptibility to fatigue. The relative representation of each fiber type can have major influences on susceptibility to obesity, diabetes, and muscular dystrophies. However, the molecular factors controlling fiber type specification remain incompletely defined. In this study, we describe the control of fiber type specification and susceptibility to metabolic disease by folliculin interacting protein-1 (Fnip1). Using Fnip1 null mice, we found that loss of Fnip1 increased the representation of type I fibers characterized by increased myoglobin, slow twitch markers [myosin heavy chain 7 (MyH7), succinate dehydrogenase, troponin I 1, troponin C1, troponin T1], capillary density, and mitochondria number. Cultured Fnip1-null muscle fibers had higher oxidative capacity, and isolated Fnip1-null skeletal muscles were more resistant to postcontraction fatigue relative to WT skeletal muscles. Biochemical analyses revealed increased activation of the metabolic sensor AMP kinase (AMPK), and increased expression of the AMPK-target and transcriptional coactivator PGC1α in Fnip1 null skeletal muscle. Genetic disruption of PGC1α rescued normal levels of type I fiber markers MyH7 and myoglobin in Fnip1-null mice. Remarkably, loss of Fnip1 profoundly mitigated muscle damage in a murine model of Duchenne muscular dystrophy. These results indicate that Fnip1 controls skeletal muscle fiber type specification and warrant further study to determine whether inhibition of Fnip1 has therapeutic potential in muscular dystrophy diseases.