SUMMARYThe full waveform inversion (FWI) of seismic reflection data aims to reconstruct a detailed physical properties model of the subsurface, fitting both the amplitude and traveltime of the reflections generated at physical discontinuities in the propagation medium. Unlike reservoirscale seismic exploration, where seismic inversion is a widely adopted remote characterisation tool, ultra high frequency (UHF, 0.2-4.0 kHz) multi-channel marine reflection seismology is still most often limited to a qualitative interpretation of the reflections' architecture. Here we propose an elastic full waveform inversion methodology, custom-tailored for pre-stack UHF marine data in vertically heterogeneous media to obtain a decimetric-scale distribution of Pimpedance, density and Poisson's ratio within the shallow sub-seabed sediments. We address the deterministic multi-parameter inversion in a sequential fashion. The complex trace instantaneous phase is first inverted for the P-wave velocity to make-up for the lack of low-frequency in the data and reduce the non-linearity of the problem. This is followed by a short-offset Pimpedance optimisation and a further step of full offset range Poisson's ratio inversion. Provided that the seismogram contains wide reflection angles (> 40 degrees), we show that it is possible to invert for density and decompose a-posteriori the relative contribution of P-wave velocity and density to the P-impedance. A broad range of synthetic tests is used to prove the potential of the methodology and highlights sensitivity issues specific to UHF seismic. An example application to real data is also presented. In the real case, trace normalisation is applied to minimise the systematic error deriving from an inaccurate source wavelet estimation. G. Provenzano et al.The inverted model for the top 15 meters of the sub-seabed agrees with the local lithological information and core-log data. Thus we can obtain a detailed remote characterisation of the shallow sediments using a multi-channel sub-bottom profiler within a reasonable computing cost and with minimal pre-processing. This has the potential to reduce the need of extensive geotechnical coring campaigns.

Current methods for characterizing near‐surface marine sediments rely on extensive coring/pene‐trometer testing and correlation to seismic facies. Little quantitative information is regularly derived from geophysical data beyond qualitative inferences of sediment characteristics based on seismic facies architecture. Even these fundamental seismostratigraphic interpretations can be difficult to correlate with lithostratigraphic data due to inaccuracies in the time‐to‐depth conversion of geophysical data and potential loss and/or compression of high‐porosity and under‐consolidated sea‐floor material during direct sampling. To complicate matters further, when quantitative information is derived from marine geophysical data, it often describes the sediments using terminology (e.g., acoustic impedance and seismic quality factor) that is impenetrable to geologists and engineers. In contrast, for hydrocarbon prospecting, reservoir characterization using quantitative inversion of geophysical data has developed enormously over the past 20 years or more. Impedance and amplitude‐versus‐angle inversion techniques are now commonplace, whereas computationally expensive waveform inversions are gaining traction, and there is a well‐developed interface between these geophysical and reservoir engineering fields via rock physics. In this paper, we collate and review the different published inversion methods for high‐resolution geophysical data. Using several case study examples spanning a broad range of depositional environments, we assess the current state of the art in remote characterization of shallow sediments from a multidisciplinary viewpoint, encompassing geophysical, geological, and geotechnical angles. By identifying the key parameters used to characterize the subsurface, a framework is developed whereby geological, geotechnical, and geophysical characterizations of the subsurface can be related in a less subjective manner. As part of this, we examine the sensitivity of commonly derived acoustic properties (e.g., acoustic impedance and seismic quality factor) to more fundamentally important soil properties (e.g., lithology, pore pressure, gas saturation, and undrained shear strength), thereby facilitating better integration between geological, geotechnical, and geophysical data for improved mapping of sediment properties. Ultimately, we present a number of ideas for future research activities in this field.

The release of greenhouse gases from both natural and man‐made sites has been identified as a major cause of global climate change. Extensive work has addressed quantifying gas seeps in the terrestrial setting while little has been done to refine accurate methods for determining gas flux emerging through the seabed into the water column. This paper investigates large‐scale methane seepage from the Scanner Pockmark in the North Sea with a new methodology that integrates data from both multibeam and single‐beam acoustics, with single‐beam data covering a bandwidth (3.5 to 200 kHz) far wider than that used in previous studies, to quantify the rate of gas release from the seabed into the water column. The multibeam data imaged a distinct fork‐shaped methane plume in the water column, the upper arm of which was consistently visible in the single‐beam data, while the lower arm was only intermittently visible. Using a novel acoustic inversion method, we determine the depth‐dependent gas bubble size distribution and the gas flux for each plume arm. Our results show that the upper plume arm comprises bubbles with radii ranging from 1 to 15 mm, while the lower arm consists of smaller bubbles with radii ranging from 0.01 to 0.15 mm. We extrapolate from these estimates to calculate the gas flux from the Scanner Pockmark as between 1.6 and 2.7 × 106 kg/year (272 to 456 L/min). This range was calculated by considering uncertainties together with Monte Carlo simulation. Our improved methodology allows more accurate quantification of natural and anthropogenic gas plumes in the water column.

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