Dioxins (PCDDs, PCDFs and DL-PCBs) are a large family of congeners that are considered highly toxic and are reported to be teratogenic, mutagenic, carcinogenic, immunotoxic and hepatotoxic, also affecting the nervous and reproductive systems. Farm animals are particularly exposed to these chemicals when they are fed with grass produced close to polluted areas such as those located in vicinity of metallurgic factories. Cytogenetic tests can be very useful to check genetic damage occurring to domestic animal cells exposed to these chemicals. Fiftytwo randomly selected Italian Friesian cows (Bos taurus, 2n = 60) from two farms located in the vicinity of and (as a control) far from the a metallurgic industrial area underwent cytogenetic investigations to ascertain possible differences in their chromosome fragility. One farm was under legal sequestration due to the presence in the milk mass of higher mean values of dioxins (24.78 ± 3.19 pg g −1 of fat as sum of PCDD + PCDF + DL-PCBs as WHO-TEQ (World Health Organization-Toxic Equivalent Quantity), with DL-PCBs being the main chemical component) than those permitted (5.5 pg g −1 of fat as WHO-TEQ). Cytogenetic analyses, performed by using both the chromosome abnormality (CA) test (chromosome and chromatid breaks) and sister chromatid exchange (SCE) test, revealed a significantly (p < 0.01) higher chromosome fragility in cells of exposed cows (26 cows) compared to those of the control (23 cows).
In a context of scarce resources, exacerbated by the economic crisis, financing investment and structural changes in slowly growing economies, such as Italy, is very challenging. It becomes fundamental to engage in evaluation exercises in order to understand what policies are working and for whom. The paper offers an evaluation exercise on the major instruments used to promote R&D and innovation activities of Italian firms. We concentrate in particular on the incentives provided by Law 46/82 (and revisions) and we look at the effects they have on firms expenditures on R&D and on new employment generation. Unlike previous studies, we consider the effects of such incentives also when other similar policies are at work. We also look at the effects for different subgroups of firms. Results suggest that a rethinking of the system of incentives would be appropriate to limit an inefficient overlapping of instruments. They also highlight that the additionality of R&D investment is verified for some categories of firms. Starting from these results, further and continuous research is needed on this subject, in order to build a robust set of evidence to inform the policy making process.
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