Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus are currently considered two of the most important pathogens in nosocomial infections associated with catheters and other medical implants and are also the main contaminants of medical instruments. However because these species of Staphylococcus are part of the normal bacterial flora of human skin and mucosal surfaces, it is difficult to discern when a microbial isolate is the cause of infection or is detected on samples as a consequence of contamination. Rapid identification of invasive strains of Staphylococcus infections is crucial for correctly diagnosing and treating infections. The aim of the present study was to identify specific genes to distinguish between invasive and contaminating S. epidermidis and S. aureus strains isolated on medical devices; the majority of our samples were collected from breast prostheses. As a first step, we compared the adhesion ability of these samples with their efficacy in forming biofilms; second, we explored whether it is possible to determine if isolated pathogens were more virulent compared with international controls. In addition, this work may provide additional information on these pathogens, which are traditionally considered harmful bacteria in humans, and may increase our knowledge of virulence factors for these types of infections.

Most nosocomial infections by Staphylococcus epidermidis and Staphylococcus aureus have gained considerable attention due to an increase of infections caused by these strains that have been reported in recent years throughout the world. Most notably, it is important to underline the presence of S. epidermidis and S. aureus in the human epithelia microflora and to highlight that it is impossible to eradicate them from humans. There are various virulence factors that normally sustain the infection life cycle, such as antibiotic resistance (methicillin resistance). Furthermore, it is important to evaluate the usefulness of typing the spa gene from isolated strains in order to study genotypes and geographical distributions. In the present review, different cases related to patients infected by Staphylococci and an overview of this problem worldwide are reported.

Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar (serotype) Abortusovis is a member of the Enterobacteriaceae. This serotype is naturally restricted to ovine species and does not infect humans. Limited information is available about the immune response of sheep to S. Abortusovis. S. Abortusovis, like Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhi, causes a systemic infection in which, under natural conditions, animals are not able to raise a rapid immune response. Failure to induce the appropriate response allows pathogens to reach the placenta and results in an abortion. Lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) are pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are specific to bacteria and are not synthesized by the host. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a family of receptors that specifically recognize PAMPs. As a first step, we were able to identify the presence of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) on the ovine placenta by using an immunohistochemistry technique. To our knowledge, this is the first work describing the interaction between S. Abortusovis LPS and TLR4. Experiments using an embryonic cell line (HEK293) transfected with human and ovine TLR4s showed a reduction of interleukin 8 (IL-8) production by S. Abortusovis and Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Paratyphi upon LPS stimulation compared to Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium. Identical results were observed using heat-killed bacteria instead of LPS. Based on data obtained with TLR4 in vitro stimulation, we demonstrated that the serotype S. Abortusovis is able to successfully evade the immune system whereas S. Typhimurium and other serovars fail to do so.

this study evidenced the presence of parasites in a cesspit of an aristocratic palace of nineteenth century in Sardinia (Italy) by the use of classical paleoparasitological techniques coupled with nextgeneration sequencing. Parasite eggs identified by microscopy included helminth genera pathogenic for humans and animals: the whipworm Trichuris sp., the roundworm Ascaris sp., the flatworm Dicrocoelium sp. and the fish tapeworm Diphyllobothrium sp. In addition, 18S rRNA metabarcoding and metagenomic sequencing analysis allowed the first description in Sardinia of aDNA of the human specific T. trichiura species and Ascaris genus. Their presence is important for understanding the health conditions, hygiene habits, agricultural practices and the diet of the local inhabitants in the period under study. Paleoparasitology, the study of ancient parasites recovered from archaeological sites, is a branch of paleopathology important to understand the health conditions and lifestyle of past populations 1-5. Classical paleoparasitology consist on the rehydration and microscopic analysis of coprolites, latrine sediments, pelvic soil of skeletons or intestines of mummified bodies, followed by identification of recovered parasite eggs basing on morphometry and other characteristics (e.g. opercula, caps and surface structures) 6. With this approach, since the first description in 1910 of Schistosoma haematobium eggs in a renal tissue of an Egyptian mummy 7 , helminth eggs have been identified in coprolites, latrines, mummified bodies, and archaeological contests all over the world 4,8-15. Despite microscopy is still a method of choice for paleoparasitological studies, it allows to identify the parasites mostly to genus level, as the eggs of related species are often indistinguishable 5,16,17. For a better taxonomic identification, immunological, hybridization and molecular techniques were developed and used in combination with classical methods 18-21. Molecular paleoparasitological studies are mainly based on PCR amplification and Sanger sequencing of short barcoding loci as 18S rDNA, mostly using primers for specific parasite taxa 21-24. The recent developed next generation sequencing (NGS) allows to identify multiple taxonomic groups at the same time by direct shotgun sequencing of DNA extracted from the samples (metagenomics) or by PCR-based metabarcoding of target genes 25-29 , but the application of this technique to paleoparasitology is so far limited to few studies 22,30,31. In Europe, human intestinal parasites were described from Palaeolithic until the middle of 1900 17 , but in Sardinia

We present the draft genome of an Oceanobacillus sp. strain isolated from spores found in soil samples from a burial crypt of the Cathedral of Sant'Antonio Abate in Castelsardo, Italy. The data obtained indicated the closest relation of the strain with Oceanobacillus caeni.