Modulating protein ubiquitination via proteasome inhibition represents a promising target for cancer therapy, because of the higher sensitivity of cancer cells to the cytotoxic effects of proteasome inhibition. Here we show that CEP-18770 is a novel orally-active inhibitor of the chymotrypsin-like activity of the proteasome that down-modulates the nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) activity and the expression of several NF-kappaB downstream effectors. CEP-18770 induces apoptotic cell death in multiple myeloma (MM) cell lines and in primary purified CD138-positive explant cultures from untreated and bortezomib-treated MM patients. In vitro, CEP-18770 has a strong antiangiogenic activity and potently represses RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis. Importantly, CEP-18770 exhibits a favorable cytotoxicity profile toward normal human epithelial cells, bone marrow progenitors, and bone marrow-derived stromal cells. Intravenous and oral administration of CEP-18770 resulted in a more sustained pharmacodynamic inhibition of proteasome activity in tumors relative to normal tissues, complete tumor regression of MM xenografts and improved overall median survival in a systemic model of human MM. Collectively, these findings provide evidence for the utility of CEP-18770 as a novel orally active proteasome inhibitor with a favorable tumor selectivity profile for the treatment of MM and other malignancies responsive to proteasome inhibition.

Affinity maturation selects B cells expressing somatically mutated antibody variants with improved antigen-binding properties to protect from invading pathogens. We determined the molecular mechanism underlying the clonal selection and affinity maturation of human B cells expressing protective antibodies against the circumsporozoite protein of the malaria parasite (PfCSP). We show in molecular detail that the repetitive nature of PfCSP facilitates direct homotypic interactions between two PfCSP repeat-bound monoclonal antibodies, thereby improving antigen affinity and B cell activation. These data provide a mechanistic explanation for the strong selection of somatic mutations that mediate homotypic antibody interactions after repeated parasite exposure in humans. Our findings demonstrate a different mode of antigen-mediated affinity maturation to improve antibody responses to PfCSP and presumably other repetitive antigens.

Antibodies against the NANP repeat of circumsporozoite protein (CSP), the major surface antigen of Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) sporozoites, can protect from malaria in animal models but protective humoral immunity is difficult to induce in humans. Here we cloned and characterized rare affinity-matured human NANP-reactive memory B cell antibodies elicited by natural Pf exposure that potently inhibited parasite transmission and development in vivo. We unveiled the molecular details of antibody binding to two distinct protective epitopes within the NANP repeat. NANP repeat recognition was largely mediated by germline encoded and immunoglobulin (Ig) heavy-chain complementarity determining region 3 (HCDR3) residues, whereas affinity maturation contributed predominantly to stabilizing the antigen-binding site conformation. Combined, our findings illustrate the power of exploring human anti-CSP antibody responses to develop tools for malaria control in the mammalian and the mosquito vector and provide a molecular basis for the structure-based design of next-generation CSP malaria vaccines.

Affinity maturation, the clonal selection and expansion of antigen-activated B cells expressing somatically mutated antibody variants that develop during T cell-dependent germinal center reactions, is considered pivotal for efficient development of protective B cell memory responses to infection and vaccination. Repeated antigen exposure promotes affinity maturation but each time also recruits antigen-reactive naïve B cells into the response. Here, we determined the relative impact of affinity maturation versus antigen-mediated clonal selection of naïve B cells to mount potent B cell memory responses in humans after repeated exposure to a complex pathogen, the malaria parasite (Pf). Using single-cell immunoglobulin (Ig) gene sequencing and production of recombinant monoclonal antibodies, we analyzed the origin, development, and quality of memory B cell responses to Pf circumsporozoite protein (PfCSP), the major sporozoite surface protein. We show that after repeated immunization of Pf-naïve volunteers with infectious Pf sporozoites (PfSPZ Challenge) under chloroquine prophylaxis (PfSPZ-CVac), the clonal selection of potent germline and memory B cell precursors against the central PfCSP NANP repeat outpaces affinity maturation because the majority of Ig gene mutations are affinity-neutral. Mathematical modeling explains how the efficiency of affinity maturation decreases strongly with antigen complexity. Thus, in the absence of long-term exposure, the frequency of antigen-reactive precursors and likelihood of their activation rather than affinity maturation will determine the quality of anti-PfCSP memory B cell responses. These findings have wide implications for the design of vaccination strategies to induce potent B cell memory responses against PfCSP and presumably other structurally complex antigens.

Transgenesis is an essential tool to investigate gene function and to introduce desired characters in laboratory organisms. Setting-up transgenesis in non-model organisms is challenging due to the diversity of biological life traits and due to knowledge gaps in genomic information. Some procedures will be broadly applicable to many organisms, and others have to be specifically developed for the target species. Transgenesis in disease vector mosquitoes has existed since the 2000s but has remained limited by the delicate biology of these insects. Here, we report a compilation of the transgenesis tools that we have designed for the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae, including new docking strains, convenient transgenesis plasmids, a puromycin resistance selection marker, mosquitoes expressing cre recombinase, and various reporter lines defining the activity of cloned promoters. This toolbox contributed to rendering transgenesis routine in this species and is now enabling the development of increasingly refined genetic manipulations such as targeted mutagenesis. Some of the reagents and procedures reported here are easily transferable to other nonmodel species, including other disease vector or agricultural pest insects.

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The control of Plasmodium falciparum erythrocytic parasite density is essential for protection against malaria, because it prevents pathogenesis and progression toward severe disease. P falciparum blood-stage parasite cultures are inhibited by human V␥9V␦2 ␥␦ T cells, but the underlying mechanism remains poorly understood. Here, we show that both intraerythrocytic parasites and the extracellular red blood cell-invasive merozoites specifically activate V␥9V␦2 T cells in a ␥␦ T cell receptor-dependent manner and trigger their degranulation. In contrast, the ␥␦ T cell-mediated antiparasitic activity only targets the extracellular merozoites. Using perforin-deficient and granulysin-silenced T-cell lines, we demonstrate that granulysin is essential for the in vitro antiplasmodial process, whereas perforin is dispensable. Patients infected with P falciparum exhibited elevated granulysin plasma levels associated with high levels of granulysin-expressing V␦2 ؉ T cells endowed with parasite-specific degranulation capacity. This indicates in vivo activation of V␥9V␦2 T cells along with granulysin triggering and discharge during primary acute falciparum malaria. Altogether, this work identifies V␥9V␦2 T cells as unconventional immune effectors targeting the red blood cell-invasive extracellular P falciparum merozoites and opens novel perspectives for immune interventions harnessing the antiparasitic activity of V␥9V␦2 T cells to control parasite density in malaria patients. (Blood. 2011;118(26):6952-6962) IntroductionClinical malaria is associated with the intraerythrocytic asexual replication cycle of the Plasmodium sp parasite. Whereas young intraerythrocytic-stage parasites circulate in the blood, mature intraerythrocytic-stage parasites (trophozoites and schizonts) are sequestered in the microcirculation. On completion of intraerythrocytic development, extracellular invasive merozoites are released into the bloodstream, where they invade new red blood cells (RBCs), thus exponentially amplifying the density of blood-stage parasites. Control of parasite density is essential for protection against malaria, because it prevents pathogenesis and progression toward severe disease.Despite major research efforts, the immune mechanisms involved in the control of parasite biomass remain poorly understood. This lack of understanding impedes the rational development of immune-based interventions to prevent or cure malaria. Analysis of immune effectors that control blood-stage parasites has mainly focused on antibodydependent mechanisms, as passive transfer of immunoglobulins dramatically reduced parasite density in children with malaria. 1,2 Little attention has been paid to early immune responses that play, however, a pivotal role in the race between parasite development and the deployment of protective adaptive immune mechanisms. Recent studies have highlighted the role of innate immune effectors, including innate lymphocytes, in the early control of parasitemia before significant levels of specific antibodies are produced; howev...