Highly reflective, continuous smooth surfaces, known as "mirror-like surfaces" (MSs), have been observed in experimental carbonate-hosted faults, which were sheared at both seismic and aseismic velocities. MSs produced during high-velocity friction experiments (>0.1 m s-1) are typically interpreted to be frictional principal slip surfaces, where weakening mechanisms are activated by shear heating. We reexamined this model by performing friction experiments in a rotary shear apparatus on calcite gouge, at seismic velocities up to v = 1.4 m s-1 and normal stress σ n = 25 MPa, to analyze the evolution of microstructures as displacement increases. After the onset of dynamic weakening, when the friction coefficients are low (µ << 0.6), sheared gouges consistently develop a welldefined, porosity-free principal slip zone (PSZ) of constant finite thickness (a few tens of micrometers) composed of nanometric material, which displays polygonal grain shapes. MSs occur at both boundaries of the PSZ, where they mark a sharp contrast in grain size with the sintered, much coarser material on either side of the PSZ. Our observations suggest that, with the onset of dynamic weakening, MSs partition the deformation by separating strong, sintered wall rocks from a central weak, actively deforming viscous PSZ. Therefore, the MSs do not correspond to frictional slip surfaces in the classical sense, but constitute sharp rheological boundaries, while, in the PSZ, shear is enhanced by thermal and grain-size-dependent mechanisms.

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Despite the hazard posed by earthquakes, we still lack fundamental understanding of the processes that control fault lubrication behind a propagating rupture front and enhance ground acceleration. Laboratory experiments show that fault materials dramatically weaken when sheared at seismic velocities (> 0.1 m s -1 ). Several mechanisms, triggered by shear heating, have been proposed to explain the coseismic weakening of faults, but none of these mechanisms can account for experimental and seismological evidence of weakening. Here we show that, in laboratory experiments, weakening correlates to local temperatures attained during seismic slip in simulated faults for diverse rockforming minerals. The fault strength evolves according to a simple, material-dependent Arrheniustype law. Microstructures support this observation by showing the development of a principal slip zone with textures typical of sub-solidus viscous flow. We show evidence that viscous deformation (either at sub-or super-solidus temperatures) is an important, widespread and quantifiable coseismic lubrication process. The operation of these highly effective fault lubrication processes means that more energy is then available for rupture propagation and the radiation of hazardous seismic waves.Earthquakes are amongst the deadliest natural disasters, with statistics showing a global death toll of > 50,000 per year, in the period 2000-2016 1 . Despite their impact on society, there is still a lack of fundamental understanding about earthquake constitutive behaviour. During seismic events, part of the mechanical energy stored in the stressed rocks is dissipated by frictional heating along the fault, causing the local temperatures to rise 2,3 . This promotes the onset of thermally-activated weakening mechanisms that help to reduce the shear strength 4-6 in the fast sliding portion of the fault, behind the rupture front 2,3 . Efficient lubrication means that more elastic energy can be transferred to the rupture tip,

Use policyThe full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-pro t purposes provided that:• a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in DRO • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders.Please consult the full DRO policy for further details. AbSTRACTThe largest field of Alpine Oligocene pegmatite dikes is in the Central Alps within the Southern Steep Belt (SSB) of the Alpine nappes; it extends for about 100 km in an E-W direction and 15 km in a N-S direction north of the Periadriatic Fault, from the Bergell pluton (to the east) to the Ossola valley (to the west). The pegmatite field geographically overlaps (1) the highest temperature domain of the Lepontine Barrovian metamorphic dome and (2) the zone of Alpine migmatization. We have studied pegmatites in two areas: (1) the Codera area on the western border of the Bergell pluton and (2) the Bodengo area between the Mera and the Mesolcina valleys. Most pegmatites show a simple mineral assemblage consisting of K-feldspar, quartz, and muscovite ± biotite, and only a minor percentage of the dikes (< 5%) contains Sn-Nb-Ta-Y-REE-U oxide, Y-REE phosphate, Mn-Fe-phosphate, Ti-Zr-silicate, Be-Y-REE-U-silicate and oxide minerals (beryl, chrysoberyl, bertrandite, bavenite, and milarite), garnet (almandine-spessartine), tourmaline (schorl to rare elbaite), bismuthinite, magnetite, and rarely dumortierite and helvite. The mineral assemblages, geological context, and chemical compositions allow the distinction between LCT (lithium, cesium, tantalum) and mixed LCT-NYF (niobium, yttrium, fluorine) pegmatites (with only one exception of an NYF dike in the Bodengo area). The LCT pegmatites of the Central Alps did not reach a high degree of geochemical evolution. The most fractionated pegmatites are found in the Codera area and contain Mn-rich elbaite, triplite, pink-beryl, and Cs-Rb-rich feldspar. In the Bodengo area pegmatites locally contain miarolitic cavities and the most evolved pegmatites correspond to the berylcolumbite-phosphate type. From a structural point of view two main types of pegmatites can be distinguished: (1) pegmatites that were involved in ductile deformation and (2) pegmatites that postdated the main ductile deformation of the SSB. Many pegmatites of the Codera valley belong to the first structural type: they were emplaced at relatively high ambient temperature (ca. 500 °C) and locally show a pervasive recrystallization of quartz and a mylonitic structure. The Codera dikes trend about 70° and are steeply dipping. In the Bodengo area the main set of pegmatites (trending approximately N-S to NNE-SSW) crosscuts the ductile deformation structures of the SSB, but the area also includes an earlier generation of boudinaged and folded pegmatite dikes. The undeformed ...

Summary The Opalinus Clay (OPA) is a clay-rich formation considered as a potential host rock for radioactive waste repositories and as a caprock for carbon storage in Switzerland. Its very low permeability (10−19 to 10−21 m2) makes it a potential sealing horizon, however the presence of faults that may be activated during the lifetime of a repository project can compromise the long-term hydrological confinement, and lead to mechanical instability. Here, we have performed laboratory experiments to test the effect of relative humidity (RH), grain size (g.s.) and normal stress on rate-and-state frictional properties and stability of fault laboratory analogues corresponding to powders of OPA shaly facies. The sifted host rock powders at different grain size fractions (&lt; 63 μm and 63 &lt; g.s. &lt; 125 μm), at room (∼25 per cent) and 100 per cent humidity, were slid in double-direct shear configuration, under different normal stresses (5 to 70 MPa). We observe that peak friction, μpeak, and steady-state friction, μss, depend on water vapor content and applied normal stress. Increasing relative humidity from ∼25 per cent RH (room humidity) to 100 per cent RH causes a decrease of frictional coefficient from 0.41 to 0.35. The analysis of velocity-steps in the light of rate-and-state friction framework shows that the stability parameter (a-b) is always positive (velocity-strengthening), and it increases with increasing sliding velocity and humidity. The dependence of (a-b) on slip rate is lost as normal stress increases, for each humidity condition. By monitoring the variations of the layer thickness during the velocity steps, we observe that dilation (Δh) is directly proportional to the sliding velocity, decreases with normal stress and is unaffected by humidity. Microstructural analysis shows that most of the deformation is accommodated within B-shear zones, and the increase of normal stress (σn) promotes the transition from strain localization and grain size reduction to distributed deformation on a well-developed phyllosilicate network. These results suggest that: (1) the progressive loss of velocity dependence of frictional stability parameter (a-b) at σn &gt; 35 MPa is dictated by a transition from localized to distributed deformation; (2) water vapor content does not affect the deformation mechanisms and dilation, whereas it decreases steady-state friction (μss), and enhances fault stability.

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Monazite-(Ce) and xenotime-(Y) from tertiary pegmatites of the central Alps (Italy and Switzerland) were studied by EMPA and SCXRD analytical methods. The REE-phosphate minerals analyzed are from LCT and NYF pegmatite dikes of the Central Alps, which includes three main areas: Vigezzo (LCT and NYF from the Vigezzo valley), Bodengo (NYF from the Leggia valley and LCT from the Cama valley), and Codera (LCT from Codera and Chiavenna valleys and Alpe Rossaccio). SEM-BSE images of monazite-(Ce) show primary growth zoning, sector zoning, and patchy zoning. SEM-BSE images of xenotime-(Y) show faint patchy-type zoning and spongiform texture. Both REE-phosphates evidence secondary mineral replacements that include thorianite, thorite, and uraninite. EMPA compositions show that the monazite-(Ce) is characterized by variable amounts of huttonite (ThSiO 4 ) and cheralite [Ca(Th,U)(PO 4 )] molecules. SCXRD analyses shows that the unit-cell volume of monazite-(Ce) correlates with its chemical composition; the b cell parameter shows an evident relationship with the huttonite molecule. The unit-cell volume of xenotime-(Y) is well correlated to its chemical composition. Xenotime-(Y) related to the NYF family shows a significant increase in yttrium and a lower U þ HREE content.The Tertiary pegmatite field of the central Alps is related to the Masino-Bregaglia intrusion, the San Fedelino granite, and younger magmatic pulses generated by the migration of the metamorphic thermal Lepontine Dome towards the west. The presence of poikiloblastic thorite, thorianite, and uraninite in monazite and xenotime can be induced to form from alkali-bearing fluids via coupled dissolution-reprecipitation, under moderate to high-grade and post-peak Alpine metamorphic conditions.