We present a new general model for the prediction of the drag coefficient of non-spherical solid particles of regular and irregular shapes falling in gas or liquid valid for sub-critical particle Reynolds numbers (i.e. Re < 3 × 105). Results are obtained from experimental measurements on 300 regular and irregular particles in the air and analytical solutions for ellipsoids. Depending on their size, irregular particles are accurately characterized with a 3D laser scanner or SEM micro-CT method. The experiments are carried out in settling columns with height of 0.45 to 3.60 m and in a 4 m-high vertical wind tunnel. In addition, 881 additional experimental data points are also considered that are compiled from the literature for particles of regular shapes falling in liquids. New correlation is based on the particle Reynolds number and two new shape descriptors defined as a function of particle flatness, elongation and diameter. New shape descriptors are easy-to-measure and can be more easily characterized than sphericity. The new correlation has an average error of ~ 10%, which is significantly lower than errors associated with existing correlations. Additional aspects of particle sedimentation are also investigated. First, it is found that particles falling in dense liquids, in particular at Re > 1000, tend to fall with their maximum projection area perpendicular to their falling direction, whereas in gases their orientation is random. Second, effects of small-scale surface vesicularity and roughness on the drag coefficient of non-spherical particles found to be < 10%. Finally, the effect of particle orientation on the drag coefficient is discussed and additional correlations are presented to predict the end members of drag coefficient due to change in the particle orientation
There is ample evidence that masking and social distancing are effective in reducing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) transmission. However, due to the complexity of airborne disease transmission, it is difficult to quantify their effectiveness, especially in the case of one-to-one exposure. Here, we introduce the concept of an upper bound for one-to-one exposure to infectious human respiratory particles and apply it to SARS-CoV-2. To calculate exposure and infection risk, we use a comprehensive database on respiratory particle size distribution; exhalation flow physics; leakage from face masks of various types and fits measured on human subjects; consideration of ambient particle shrinkage due to evaporation; and rehydration, inhalability, and deposition in the susceptible airways. We find, for a typical SARS-CoV-2 viral load and infectious dose, that social distancing alone, even at 3.0 m between two speaking individuals, leads to an upper bound of 90% for risk of infection after a few minutes. If only the susceptible wears a face mask with infectious speaking at a distance of 1.5 m, the upper bound drops very significantly; that is, with a surgical mask, the upper bound reaches 90% after 30 min, and, with an FFP2 mask, it remains at about 20% even after 1 h. When both wear a surgical mask, while the infectious is speaking, the very conservative upper bound remains below 30% after 1 h, but, when both wear a well-fitting FFP2 mask, it is 0.4%. We conclude that wearing appropriate masks in the community provides excellent protection for others and oneself, and makes social distancing less important.
Aggregation processes are known to play an important role in volcanic particle dispersal and sedimentation. They are also a primary source of uncertainty in ash dispersal forecasting since fundamental questions, such as the timing and deposition dynamics of volcanic aggregates, still remain unanswered. Here, we applied a state-of-the-art combination of field and numerical strategies to characterize volcanic aggregates. We introduce a new category of aggregates observed with high-speed-high-resolution videos, namely cored clusters. Cored clusters are mostly sub-spherical fragile aggregates that have never been observed in the deposits nor on adhesive tape as they typically break at impact with the ground. They consist of a core particle (200–500μm) fully covered by a thick shell of particles < 90μm. The low preservation potential of cored clusters in ash deposits explains the poor documentation in the literature and the low consideration attributed so far. Cored clusters can also better explain the deposition of fine ash in proximal and medial regions and the polymodality observed in many ash deposits. In addition, numerical inversions show how cored clusters can rapidly form within 175s from eruption onset. Finally, our observations represent the first field-based evidence of the so-called rafting effect, in which the sedimentation of coarse ash in cored clusters is delayed due to aggregation
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