Abstract. Animals can be important in nutrient cycling through a variety of direct and indirect pathways. A high biomass of animals often represents a large pool of nutrients, leading some ecologists to argue that animal assemblages can represent nutrient sinks within ecosystems. The role of animals as sources vs. sinks of nutrients has been debated particularly extensively for freshwater fishes. We argue that a large pool size does not equate to a nutrient sink; rather, animals can be nutrient sinks when their biomass increases, when emigration rates are high, and/or when nutrients in animal carcasses are not remineralized. To further explore these ideas, we use a simple model to evaluate the conditions under which fish are phosphorus (P) sources or sinks at the ecosystem (lake) level, and at the habitat level (benthic and water column habitats). Our simulations suggest that, under most conditions, fish are sinks for benthic P but are net P sources to the water column. However, P source and sink strengths depend on fish feeding habits (proportion of P consumed from the benthos and water column), migration patterns, and especially the fate of carcass P. Of particular importance is the rate at which carcasses are mineralized and the relative importance of benthic vs. pelagic primary producers in taking up mineralized P (and excreted P). Higher proportional uptake of P by benthic primary producers increases the likelihood that fish are sinks for water column P. Carcass bones and scales are relatively recalcitrant and can represent a P sink even if fish biomass does not change over time. Thus, there is a need for better documentation of the fraction of carcass P that is remineralized, and the fate of this P, under natural conditions. We urge a more holistic perspective regarding the role of animals in nutrient cycling, with a focus on quantifying the rates at which animals consume, store, release, and transport nutrients under various conditions.

The amount of carbon stored in deadwood is equivalent to about 8% of global forest carbon stocks 1 . Deadwood decomposition is largely governed by climate [2][3][4][5] with decomposer groups, such as microbes and insects, contributing to variations in decomposition rates 2,6,7 . At the global scale, the contribution of insects to deadwood decomposition and carbon release remains poorly understood 7 . Here we present a field experiment of wood decomposition across 55 forest sites on six continents. We find that deadwood decomposition rates increase with temperature, with the strongest temperature effect at high precipitation levels. Precipitation affects decomposition rates negatively at low temperature and positively at high temperatures. As net effect, including direct consumption and indirect effects via interactions with microbes, insects accelerate decomposition in tropical forests (3.9% median mass loss per year).In temperate and boreal forests we find weak positive and negative effects with a median mass loss of 0.9% and -0.1% per year, respectively. Furthermore, we apply the experimentally derived decomposition function to a global map of deadwood carbon synthesised from empirical and remote sensing data. This allows for a first estimate of 10.9 ± 3.2 Pg yr -1 of carbon released from deadwood globally, with 93% originating from tropical forests. Globally, the net effect of insects accounts for a carbon flux of 3.2 ± 0.9 Pg yr -1 or 29% of the total carbon released from deadwood, which highlights the functional importance of insects for deadwood decomposition and the global carbon cycle.

Simultaneously enhancing ecosystem services provided by biodiversity below and above ground is recommended to reduce dependence on chemical pesticides and mineral fertilisers in agriculture. However, consequences for crop yield have been poorly evaluated. Above ground, increased landscape complexity is assumed to enhance biological pest control, whereas below ground, soil organic carbon is a proxy for several yield-supporting services. In a field experiment replicated in 114 fields across Europe, we found that fertilisation had the strongest positive effect on yield, but hindered simultaneous harnessing of below- and above-ground ecosystem services. We furthermore show that enhancing natural enemies and pest control through increasing landscape complexity can prove disappointing in fields with low soil services or in intensively cropped regions. Thus, understanding ecological interdependences between land use, ecosystem services and yield is necessary to promote more environmentally friendly farming by identifying situations where ecosystem services are maximised and agrochemical inputs can be reduced.

1One of the central questions of ecological stoichiometry theory is to what extent animal 2 species maintain constant elemental composition in their bodies. Although several recent 3 studies demonstrate intraspecific variation in animal elemental composition, relatively little is 4 known about ontogenetic changes in vertebrates, especially during early life stages. We 5 studied the intraspecific and interspecific ontogenetic variation in the body stoichiometry of 6 two fish species in two different orders; fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) and 7 sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus), reared under controlled laboratory conditions. 8

Aim In several ecosystems, the diversity of functional species traits has been shown to have a stronger effect on ecosystem functioning than taxonomic diversity alone. However, few studies have explored this idea at a large geographical scale. In a multisite experiment, we unravelled the relationship between ecosystem function and functional completeness of species assemblages using dung beetles as a model group, focusing on dung removal and secondary seed dispersal. Location Seventeen grassland locations across the Western Palaearctic. Methods We used a randomized block design with different exclosure types to control the dung and seed removing activities of individual functional groups of the local dung beetle assemblage. We classified dung beetle species according to resource specialization and into functional groups based on dung processing behaviour (dwellers, tunnellers, rollers) and body size (small, large). Additionally, we assessed the role of other soil macro‐invertebrates. By sampling the dung beetle community and measuring the remaining dung and seeds after the experiment, the impact of each functional group was estimated. Results Dung beetle assemblages differed along a north–south and east–west gradient. Dwellers dominated northernmost sites, whereas at lower latitudes we observed more tunnellers and rollers indicating a functional shift. Resource specialists were more abundant in southern and eastern areas. Overall, functional group diversity enhanced dung removal. More dung (+46.9%) and seeds (+32.1%) were removed in the southern sites and tunnellers and rollers were more effective. At the northernmost sites, where tunnellers were scarce or absent, other soil macro‐invertebrates removed the majority of dung. Main conclusions The conservation of functionally complete dung beetle assemblages is crucial to maintain the ecosystem functions provided by dung beetles. Given the latitudinal variation in functional group diversity, it is reasonable to expect compositional changes due to climate change. These changes could lead to increased dung removal and a higher secondary seed dispersal rate in northern regions.

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There are only few studies that explore the ecological consequences of forest management on several organism groups. We studied the short-term effects of four forestry treatments including preparation cutting, clear-cutting, retention tree group and gap-cutting in a temperate managed forest on the assemblage structure of understory plants, enchytraeid worms, spiders and ground beetles. Here we show, that the effect of treatments on the different facets of assemblage structure was taxon-specific. Clear-cutting and retention tree group strongly impoverished enchytraeids assemblages. Even if the species richness and cover of plants increased in clear-cutting and gap-cutting, their species composition moderately changed after treatments. For spiders only their species composition was influenced by the treatments, while the response of ground beetles was slightly affected. Short-term effect of forest management interventions on biodiversity might be compensated by the dispersal (spiders, ground beetles) and resilience (plants) of organism groups, however sedentary soil organism showed high sensitivity.

SummaryMorphometric-based condition indices are widely used to assess proximate body composition and collaterally, feeding and living conditions of fish. However, the exact relationship between condition indices and proximate body composition of fish and its relatedness to life history traits and seasonality have not been fully explored yet. Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine how the Fulton's condition factor (K-factor) is related to the chemical composition (i.e., lipid, protein, water and carbon content, and molar carbon: nitrogen ratio), length and gonadal development of fish, and how these relationships are influenced by gender and seasonality in three freshwater fish species: Amur sleeper (Perccottus glenii), pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus) and rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus). We found that the strength and direction of association between the K-factor and proximate body composition can vary markedly among fish species. The K-factor correlated positively with gonadal development in pumpkinseed and Amur sleeper, while no such relationship existed in rudd. Condition factor can be a reliable measure of lipid content; however, the relationship was stronger in species with higher and more variable lipid contents.Moreover, we found striking and consistently negative linkage between the K-factor and water content of the fish body, which correspond with the findings of several other studies. In turn, we could not detect any relationship between the K-factor and protein content of fish. Gender seemed to exert negligible effect on the relationship between the K-factor and proximate body composition, while seasonal variance was obvious in most relationships.