Empirical support for the usage of the Youth Level of Service measures has been reported in studies conducted in the North America, United Kingdom, and Australia. Recent meta-analytic studies on the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI) have revealed that the measure has modest to moderate predictive validity for general recidivism, but there are very few studies on the predictive validity of the YLS/CMI ratings for recidivism in non-Western contexts. This study examined the predictive validity of the YLS/CMI 2.0 ratings for general recidivism in a sample of 3,264 youth offenders within a Singaporean context (Mfollow-up = 1,764.5 days; SDfollow-up = 521.5). Results showed that the YLS/CMI 2.0 overall risk ratings and total scores significantly predicted general recidivism for both male and female youth offenders. Overall, the results suggest that the YLS/CMI 2.0 is suited for assessing youth offenders in terms of their risk for general recidivism within a non-Western context.

The Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory–Screening Version (YLS/CMI-SV) is designed to provide a preliminary estimate of the level of risk for antisocial behaviors as well as an indication of areas for intervention in youth offenders. This study examined the predictive validity of the YLS/CMI-SV for violent, nonviolent, and general recidivism in a sample of 3,264 youth offenders within a Singaporean context (Mfollow-up = 1,764.5 days; SDfollow-up = 521.5). Cox regression and Receiver Operating Characteristic analyses revealed that the YLS/CMI-SV is significantly predictive of general, violent, and nonviolent recidivism for the male youth offenders, but there were mixed results for the female youth offenders. Overall, these results indicated that the YLS/CMI-SV is a useful measure for assessing the levels of risk for male youth offenders, and more investigation is needed to determine the suitability of the YLS/CMI-SV for the female youth offenders. Its implications for clinical practice and policy are discussed.

The study examined the risk and protective factors for the successful completion of probation orders among youth offenders in Singapore. Specifically, we proposed a typology whereby a predictor can be labeled as a promotive factor, hazard factor, or mixed factor in a direct relationship; or a booster factor or buffering factor in an interactive relationship. This study included 701 youth offenders. Retrospective case file coding was conducted to score the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS/CMI) and Structured Assessment of Protective Factors for Violence Risk-Youth Version (SAPROF-YV). Most SAPROF factors were shown to be mixed protective factors, whereas most YLS/CMI domains were either mixed risk factors or hazard factors. An absence of a supportive external pedagogical climate (PC) was the strongest mixed factor. For youth with high PC, significant booster factors included high levels of attitudes toward agreements and conditions, motivation for treatment, perseverance, and bonding to school/work, as well as low levels of risk in peer relations and education/employment. For youth with limited PC, buffering factors with the strongest effects include self-control, future orientation, and school/work. Implications for practice and future research were discussed. Keywords youth offender, protective factor, risk factor, YLS/CMI, SAPROF Youth offending and reoffending is a costly societal problem. Though in a decreasing trend, the number of youth arrested and convicted each year is still high worldwide. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 200,000 homicides occur among youth each year globally (WHO, 2016). Risk and protective factors associated with youth crime have received extensive attention from scholars. However, different terminologies have been used to describe risk and protective factors in existing literature (Ttofi, Farrington, Piquero, & DeLisi, 2016), and studies have shown considerable variations in the crime and recidivism rates. A recent systematic review of prospective longitudinal studies showed that the prevalence of life-course-persistent offenders varied vastly between 1.3% and 29.1% due to the differences in the study population and the definition of key constructs (Jolliffe, Farrington, Piquero, MacLeod, & van de Weijer, 2017). Therefore, research using shared definitions of variables examining the mechanisms of youth crime are critically needed in criminology research. Establishment of a typology of risk and protective factors is necessary to inform prevention and intervention programs for better offender rehabilitation outcomes in different cultures. Standardizing the Definitions of Risk and Protective FactorsIn the forensic risk assessment literature, risk factors are found to be consistently defined as variables that increase the likelihood of negative outcomes Vagi et al., 2013). In addition, risk factors should precede the outcomes and can be used to classify a population into high-risk and low-risk groups (Kraemer et al., 1997). In fo...

The purpose of the study is to examine the impact of childhood maltreatment on youth offender recidivism in Singapore. The study used case file coding on a sample of 3,744 youth offenders, among whom about 6% had a childhood maltreatment history. The results showed that the Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory 2.0 (YLS/CMI 2.0) ratings significantly predicted recidivism for nonmaltreated youth offenders, but not for maltreated youth offenders. Using propensity score matching, the result from a Cox regression analysis showed that maltreated youth offenders were 1.38 times as likely as their nonmaltreated counterparts to reoffend with a follow-up period of up to 7.4 years. The results implied that the YLS/CMI 2.0 measures were insufficient for assessing the risk for recidivism for the maltreated youth offenders, and that other information is needed to help assessors use the professional override when making the overall risk ratings.

Sexual offending has attracted increasing public concern because of its long-term effects. Although there is an increasing amount of research on the risk factors for recidivism among youth who have sexually offended, there is a dearth of research on the protective factors for desistence from recidivism. The current study investigated the associations between protective factors and recidivism among 97 Singaporean youth who sexually offended (YSO). In addition, the predictive validity with regard to two new measures of protective factors—the Desistence for Adolescents Who Sexually Harm (DASH-13), and Structured Assessment of Protective Factors for Violence Risk (SAPROF)—were also evaluated. Results indicated that both the DASH-13 and the SAPROF were inversely related to the Estimate of Risk of Adolescent Sexual Offense Recidivism (ERASOR). However, neither the DASH-13 nor the SAPROF were found to have adequate predictive validity or incremental validity for sexual or nonsexual recidivism. The implications for the assessment and management of YSO are discussed.