Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection has been implicated as a primary cause of lesions in the anogenital region, skin, oropharynx and respiratory tract. Additionally, the role of HPV in the pathogenesis of ocular surface disease has also been extensively studied. Conjunctival papilloma development has been strongly associated with the HPV infection of certain subtypes. On the other hand, the role of HPV in conjunctival pterygium, conjunctival intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) and ocular surface squamous neoplasia (OSSN) remains controversial. Genetic predisposition and environmental factor is important in HPV hosts as regards the pathogenesis of ocular surface disease. Several studies have indicate a synergic role of HPV with ultraviolet radiation in pterygium establishment. A higher recurrence risk rate and more aggressive disease of ophthalmic pterygium is observed in cases of HPV infection. The purpose of this review was to provide a systematic review of the literature and to assist in a better understanding of the role of HPV in ocular surface disease.

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• Stereology can be applied to measure the orbital volume using computed tomography. • Stereological measurements display high correlation with gold standard planimetry and combine low coefficient of error (2.59%) with low measurement time (1.9 min). • Stereology is superior in terms of user effort and time spent.

LRT may be used as an alternative tool in clinical practice to determine intraocular pressure when conventional devices and techniques might be inadequate or unreliable.

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to examine preoperative use of intravitreal dexamethasone implant in patients with refractory diabetic macular edema (DME) undergoing cataract surgery. Participants in this study were 17 patients with DMe refractory to previous treatment with anti-vascular endothelial growth factor agents or dexamethasone implant, and co-existent cataract. All participants received intravitreal dexamethasone implant at baseline and underwent phacoemulsification within one month after its insertion. Bestcorrected visual acuity (BCVA) and central subfield thickness (CST) changes between baseline, time of cataract surgery and postoperative months 1, 2 and 3 were evaluated. At month 1 after surgery, BCVA improved significantly from 42.3 ± 9.6 to 58.7 ± 11.9 letters compared to baseline (p < 0.001) and the improvement was sustained at month 2 and month 3 postoperatively. One month postoperatively, CST improved significantly compared to baseline (p < 0.001) and the improvement was sustained at month 2 (p < 0.001), while at month 3 CST started to increase, but remained significantly lower than baseline (p = 0.003). At month 3 postoperatively, 35.3% of patients presented recurrence of ME. Patients with refractory DME and cataract can safely undergo phacoemulsification when dexamethasone implant is inserted one month prior to surgery to ensure adequate control of postoperative inflammation and prevent deterioration of Me. Diabetic macular edema (DME) is a common complication of diabetes mellitus, affecting about 20% of patients with diabetic retinopathy, and can lead to visual loss if left untreated 1,2. Patients with diabetes mellitus seem to develop cataract more frequently and earlier compared to non-diabetic population, because of the inherent metabolic condition of the disease 3-5. It is worthy to note that cataract surgery in diabetic patients has been associated with higher risk of complications, including postoperative macular edema (Irvine-Gass syndrome) or worsening of pre-existing DME, especially in the presence of unstable diabetic retinopathy 6-12. In fact, it has been reported that about 22% of diabetic patients, who undergo cataract surgery, develop macular edema 7. Previous studies have shown that intravitreal injection of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (anti-VEGF) agents or triamcinolone pre-operatively, post-operatively or at the time of phacoemulsification may reduce the development of postoperative DME, although rapid recurrence of macular edema occurred and in case of triamcinolone the risk of intraocular pressure (IOP) increase may also exist 13-22. Intravitreal dexamethasone implant (Ozurdex, Allergan) is a biodegradable corticosteroid implant, which provides sustained-release of 700 μg dexamethasone into the vitreous for up to 6 months 23. It has been successfully applied for the treatment of DME, retinal vein occlusion and non-infectious posterior uveitis 24-26. There are few studies using intravitreal dexamethasone implant to control postoperative macular edema in patients affected by DME, showing promis...

Findings imply that PCR-mediated HPV detection and typing in exfoliative swab specimens may be employed as a non-invasive diagnostic tool in the management of ophthalmic pterygia.