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Both military women and men are exposed to a wide range of stressor events as a part of military training and work assignments. 1 In addition, military women may also experience stressors related to being a woman in a traditionally and predominantly male work environment. 2 The link between perceived work-related stress and impaired functioning on the job is welldocumented, demonstrating the classic inverted U-shaped relationship between stress and performance. That is, employees who experience a moderate degree of job stress perform their jobs most efficiently, while those who experience either low or high work-related stress show reduced work efficiency. 3 The potential moderating effects of various physiological, psychological, and social factors on the stress-job performance relationship also have been examined; these moderators may act by contributing to or reducing the resources that individuals can bring to bear in coping with stressors. 4 Coping is one of several psychosocial factors posited to moderate or mediate the relationship between stress and job functioning. Conceptual models that view coping as a conscious effort to manage distressing problems and emotions have guided much of the stress and coping research over the past two decades. 5 These models generally predict that there are at least three major components to stress-functioning relations: (a) the type of stressor or environmental demand; (b) psychosocial moderators and mediators, such as an individual's coping style; and (c) the resulting psychosocial, physiological, and behavioral outcomes. 6 The study of coping points to two basic modes for understanding individuals' response to stress: approach and avoidance. 7 As conceptualized, approach and avoidance are constructs describing behavioral, cognitive, and emotional activity that is oriented either toward or away from threat. Studies examining the moderating effect of various approach or avoidance coping styles, however, have not consistently shown benefits of specific coping strategies. 8 For example, the literature indicates that avoidance strategies are good predictors of alcohol abuse, while the association between approach coping strategies and alcohol consumption is uncertain. 9 Health research in the past decade has shown that women consistently report higher levels of stress and depressive symptoms than men, whereas disorders associated with substance abuse are more common in men. 10 For example, rates of depression among women are at least twofold higher than among men. 11 In terms of job functioning, depressive symptoms are related to lower performance at work, independent of interpersonal stress attributed to co-workers and others and job stress related to dissatisfying work. 12 Studies of gender differences in the rate, nature, and timing of life events associated with depression have shown inconsistent results, in part due to differences in the methods used and the results examined. For example, the literature suggests that the relationship between gender and the onset of depr...

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The aims of this study were to: (a) assess the effects of various patterns of exposure to methadone programs on heroin use; (b) assess the effects of other patient, program, and treatment variables; and (c) identify variables that promote the type of exposure to methadone programs that is most effective for reducing heroin use. The sample was 526 patients who were admitted from 1979 to 1981 into 17 methadone programs that participated in the Treatment Outcome Prospective Study. The study differs from previous research in that it addresses the time that patients spent in methadone programs during the follow-up period in defining exposure patterns. Heroin use was lowest among patients who were continuously exposed to methadone programs. Retention was highest among patients who attended programs that informed them of their methadone dose levels, were easy to access, and provided them with high quality social services.

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