This study tests a hypothesized learning progression for the concept of energy. It looks at 14 specific ideas under the categories of (i) Energy Forms and Transformations; (ii) Energy Transfer; (iii) Energy Dissipation and Degradation; and (iv) Energy Conservation. It then examines students' growth of understanding within each of these ideas at three levels of increasing conceptual complexity. The basic level of the model focuses on simple energy relationships and easily observable effects of energy processes; the intermediate level focuses on more complex energy concepts and applications; and the advanced level focuses on still more complex energy concepts, often requiring an atomic/molecular model to explain phenomena. The study includes results from 359 distractor-driven, multiple-choice test items administered to over 20,000 students in grades 4 through 12 from across the U.S. Rasch analysis provided linear measures of student performance and item difficulty on the same scale. Results largely supported a model of students' growth of understanding that progresses from an understanding of forms and transformations of energy to energy transfer to conservation while also progressing along a separate dimension of cognitive complexity. An analysis of the current state of students' understanding with respect to the knowledge identified in the learning progression showed that elementary level students perform well in comparison to expectations but that middle and high school students' performance does not meet expectations. # 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 55: 2018
Standards-based science education, with its emphasis on monitoring and accountability, is rapidly becoming a key part of the globalization of science education. Standards-based testing within countries is increasingly being used to determine the effectiveness of a country's educational system, and international testing programs such as Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and Trends in Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) enable countries to compare their students to a common standard and to compete among themselves for top scores. The raising of standards and the competition among countries is driven in part by a belief that economic success depends on a citizenry that is knowledgeable about science and technology. This article considers the question of whether it is possible and prudent to begin conversations about what an international standards document for global citizenship in science education might look like. It examines current practices in a range of countries to show both the areas of international agreement and the significant differences that exist. It concludes with a recommendation that such conversations should begin, with the goal of creating a document that lays out the knowledge and competencies that international citizens should have but yet that gives space to individual countries to pursue goals that are unique to their own setting. ß
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