Aedes albopictus is a mosquito originating from Asia, which has extended its range worldwide the last decades. It is a competent vector for several arboviruses. It was first described in La Réunion (an island of the South West part of the Indian Ocean) in 1913. Since then, it has become the dominant Aedes species and a serious threat to public health, especially during the two last arboviruses outbreaks of dengue (1977) and chikungunya (2005-2006). Despite its pest status, data on the biology of this vector are scarce, especially the population present in the Indian Ocean (IO), which has never been studied in detail. Therefore, the immature development, survival, longevity, fecundity, and gonotrophic cycles of Ae. albopictus were studied for an F2 population of the IO. These biological parameters were studied in controlled conditions at eight constant temperatures (5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 degrees C). The minimal threshold of immature stages development was found at 10.4 degrees C and its optimum at 29.7 degrees C. The shortest periods for immature development were found at 30 degrees C, with in average of 8.8 d. The optimum intrinsic rate of growth (r) was observed between 25 and 30 degrees C. The gonotrophic cycles were also evaluated, and the shortest cycles were found at 30 degrees C (mean, 3.5 d). Those results are according to the field repartition of this species in La Réunion, allowing Ae. albopictus survival at a large range of temperatures.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) has long been considered to be transmitted to humans by the human-biting mosquito Aedes aegypti, especially in Africa. However, the recent outbreak of CHIKV involved another vector, Aedes albopictus, and serological data in the literature suggest that several species of domestic or human-related vertebrates can be contaminated by this virus. However, the role of Ae. albopictus mosquitoes as potential enzootic vectors for CHIKV has not yet been evaluated. Here we investigate Ae. albopictus feeding and resting behaviors in an area where a CHIKV epidemic recently occurred, which means deciphering host-seeking and feeding behaviors on several vertebrate species, measuring endophagous/exophagous (activity), endophilic/exophilic (resting) behaviors and its diel (24 h, day/night) biting activity. Ae. albopictus was found to have bimodal daily feeding activities and was found to have exophagic (89%) and exophilic (87%) behaviors. Ae. albopictus showed an opportunistic feeding behavior on a wide range of hosts (from cold-blooded to warm-blooded animals), supporting that it can be implicated in various vertebrate-virus pathosystems. However, with equal availability of one of the four vertebrate hosts (calf, chicken, dog, and goat) proposed against human, Ae. albopictus significantly preferred human, supporting earlier data about its high degree of anthropophily. Multiple blood feeding was also reported in every combination (animal/human) offered to Ae. albopictus, enlightening the higher risks to spread an arbovirus to human population because of interrupted feeding. Such catholic behavior suggests that Ae. albopictus may act as a bridge vector for zoonotic viruses. Further epidemiological implications of this issue are discussed.

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In West Africa, lineage splitting between the M and S molecular forms of the major Afro-tropical malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae is thought to be driven by ecological divergence, occurring mainly at the larval stage. Here, we present evidences for habitat segregation between the two molecular forms in and around irrigated rice-fields located within the humid savannahs background of western Burkina Faso. Longitudinal sampling of adult mosquitoes emerging from a range of breeding sites distributed along a transect extending from the heart of the rice-fields area into the surrounding savannahs was conducted from June to November 2009. Analysis revealed that the two molecular forms and their sibling species An. arabiensis are not randomly distributed in the area. A major ecological gradient was extracted, in relation to the rice-fields perimeter. The M form was associated with larger breeding sites, which were mainly represented by rice field paddies whereas the S form and An. arabiensis were found to depend upon temporary, rain-filled breeding sites. These results support hypotheses about larval habitat segregation and confirm that both forms have different larval habitat requirement. Segregation appears clearly linked to anthropogenic permanent habitats and the community structure they support.

Disruptive selection mediated by predation on aquatic immature stages has been proposed as a major force driving ecological divergence and fostering speciation between the M and S molecular forms of the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. In the dry savannahs of West Africa where both molecular forms co-occur, the S form thrives in temporary pools filled with rainwater, whereas the M form preferentially breeds in permanent freshwater habitats where predator pressure is higher. Here, we explored the proximal mechanisms by which predation may contribute to habitat segregation between molecular forms using progeny of female mosquitoes captured in Burkina Faso. We show that the S form suffers higher predation rates than the M form when simultaneously exposed to the widespread predator, Anisops jaczewskii in an experimental arena. Furthermore, behavioral plasticity induced by exposure to the predator was observed in the M form, but not in the S form, and may partially explain its habitat use and ecological divergence from the S form. We discuss the role of adaptive phenotypic plasticity in allowing successful colonization of a new ecological niche by the M form and highlight further research areas that need to be addressed for a better understanding of the ultimate mechanisms underlying ecological speciation in this pest of major medical importance.

Sicyopterus lagocephalus post-larvae migrating in Mascarene Archipelago rivers, La Réunion Island, provide an important food source to local populations and fishing activity has a socioeconomic impact. Improved knowledge of the life traits and the characterisation of post-larval stages should enable a better understanding of physiological changes triggering migratory behaviour. It would also help to explain the recruitment processes to managers and to implement conservation measures for stock management. Sicyopterus lagocephalus is an amphidromous fish: adults live in rivers, but larvae are carried to the sea after hatching. The present study characterised the metamorphosis and post-larval stages of Sicyopterus lagocephalus during river recolonisation on La Réunion Island. The results show that cranium reorganisation and pectoral fins transformation are part of the first and major transformations and are completed less than 2 weeks after freshwater colonisation (post-larval stages PL1 and PL2). These transformations, mobilising all the available calcium, seem to be critical for survival in their new environment. Individuals then progressively acquire pigmentation, complete scalation and the fork at the end of the caudal fin disappears (juvenile stages J1 and J2). The end of the recruitment phase takes place 21 to 28 days after entering the river mouth, when territorial behaviour appears.

Background: Predation of aquatic immature stages has been identified as a major evolutionary force driving habitat segregation and niche partitioning in the malaria mosquito Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto in the humid savannahs of Burkina Faso, West Africa. Here, we explored behavioural responses to the presence of a predator in wild populations of the M and S molecular forms of An. gambiae that typically breed in permanent (e.g., rice field paddies) and temporary (e.g., road ruts) water collections. Methods: Larvae used in these experiments were obtained from eggs laid by wild female An. gambiae collected from two localities in south-western Burkina Faso during the 2008 rainy season. Single larvae were observed in an experimental arena, and behavioural traits were recorded and quantified a) in the absence of a predator and b) in the presence of a widespread mosquito predator, the backswimmer Anisops jaczewskii. Differences in the proportion of time allocated to each behaviour were assessed using Principal Component Analysis and Multivariate Analysis of Variance. Results: The behaviour of M and S form larvae was found to differ significantly; although both forms mainly foraged at the water surface, spending 60-90% of their time filtering water at the surface or along the wall of the container, M form larvae spent on average significantly more time browsing at the bottom of the container than S form larvae (4.5 vs. 1.3% of their overall time, respectively; P < 0.05). In the presence of a predator, larvae of both forms modified their behaviour, spending significantly more time resting along the container wall (P < 0.001). This change in behaviour was at least twice as great in the M form (from 38.6 to 66.6% of the time at the wall in the absence and presence of the predator, respectively) than in the S form (from 48.3 to 64.1%). Thrashing at the water surface exposed larvae to a significantly greater risk of predation by the notonectid (P < 0.01), whereas predation occurred significantly less often when larvae were at the container wall (P < 0.05) and might reflect predator vigilance. Conclusions: Behavioural differences between larvae of the M and S form of An. gambiae in response to an acute predation risk is likely to be a reflection of different trade-offs between foraging and predator vigilance that might be of adaptive value in contrasting aquatic ecosystems. Future studies should explore the relevance of these findings under the wide range of natural settings where both forms co-exist in Africa.

BackgroundTsetse flies transmit trypanosomes that cause human and African animal trypanosomosis, a debilitating disease of humans (sleeping sickness) and livestock (nagana). An area-wide integrated pest management campaign against Glossina palpalis gambiensis has been implemented in Senegal since 2010 that includes a sterile insect technique (SIT) component. The SIT can only be successful when the sterile males that are destined for release have a flight ability, survival and competitiveness that are as close as possible to that of their wild male counterparts.Methodology/Principal FindingsTests were developed to assess the quality of G. p. gambiensis males that emerged from pupae that were produced and irradiated in Burkina Faso and Slovakia (irradiation done in Seibersdorf, Austria) and transported weekly under chilled conditions to Dakar, Senegal. For each consignment a sample of 50 pupae was used for a quality control test (QC group). To assess flight ability, the pupae were put in a cylinder filtering emerged flies that were able to escape the cylinder. The survival of these flyers was thereafter monitored under stress conditions (without feeding). Remaining pupae were emerged and released in the target area of the eradication programme (RF group). The following parameter values were obtained for the QC flies: average emergence rate more than 69%, median survival of 6 days, and average flight ability of more than 35%. The quality protocol was a good proxy of fly quality, explaining a large part of the variances of the examined parameters.Conclusions/SignificanceThe quality protocol described here will allow the accurate monitoring of the quality of shipped sterile male tsetse used in operational eradication programmes in the framework of the Pan-African Tsetse and Trypanosomosis Eradication Campaign.