Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is vital to climate change mitigation, and has application across the economy, in addition to facilitating atmospheric carbon dioxide removal resulting in emissions offsets and net negative emissions. This contribution reviews the state-of-the-art and identifies key challenges which must be overcome in order to pave the way for its large-scale deployment.
T he continued growth in anthropogenic CO 2 emissions would appear to be characterized by one word-inexorable. Despite a growing number of climate change mitigation policies, anthropogenic CO 2 emissions in the period 2000-2014 grew at an average rate of 2.6% per year, in contrast with an average rate of 1.72% per year in the period 1970-2000 1,2 . Indeed, in the period 2010-2014, emissions increased from approximately 31.9 to 35.5 Gt CO 2 per year; an average rate of 2.75% per year 2 . With the exception of a one-year reduction from 2008 to 2009, every year of this century has seen a year-on-year increase in anthropogenic CO 2 emissions.It has become commonplace to discuss future emission trajectories in terms of scenarios from, for example, the International Energy Agency (IEA) or the IPCC. Both the IEA and IPCC project that a world commensurate with no more than 2 °C of warming above pre-industrial levels is one in which total anthropogenic CO 2 emissions are reduced to something less than 20 Gt CO 2 per year by 2050, with further reductions to near-zero or even net-negative emissions by the end of the century. This is typically referred to as the two-degree scenario or 2DS. At the other end of the spectrum, allowing anthropogenic emissions to increase to 60 Gt CO 2 per year by 2050 is commensurate with warming of approximately 6 °C above pre-industrial levels-this is the six degree scenario, 6DS 1,3 .The conclusion one can draw from the foregoing data is that if anthropogenic emissions of CO 2 continue along any of the recent growth trends, we are poised to very significantly overshoot the 6DS. To even meet the 6DS, we would need to reduce the annual rate of growth of emissions to 1.4% and to meet the 2DS, the rate of growth needs to be -1.5% if global emissions peak in the 2020s. If emissions peak later, the required rate of reduction similarly increases. For the remainder of this analysis, we hypothesize a world, inspired by recent success in Paris, that reduces emissions to a level commensurate with the 6DS by 2020 and aims thereafter to transition to a world commensurate with the 2DS, focusing on the period to 2050. This allows us to introduce the quantity mitigation challenge (MC), the amount of avoided CO 2 emissions (against a reference case) by a given date, t f , in order to reduce emissions to a level commensurate with meeting the 2DS, E 2DS . E 2DS is a function of the year in which emissions peak, t p , the emission rate in that year, E tp , and lastly the rate at which CO 2 would be emitted in t f according to a low To offset the cost associated with CO 2 capture and storage (CCS), there is growing interest in finding commercially viable enduse opportunities for the captured CO 2 . In this Perspective, we discuss the potential contribution of carbon capture and utilization (CCU). Owing to the scale and rate of CO 2 production compared to that of utilization allowing long-term sequestration, it is highly improbable the chemical conversion of CO 2 will account for more than 1% of the mitigation cha...
Interfacial tension measurements are reported for the (H2O + CO2) system at pressures of (1 to 60) MPa and temperatures of (298 to 374) K. The pendant drop method was implemented using a high-pressure apparatus consisting of a view cell, fitted with a high-pressure capillary tube for creating pendant H2O drops in the CO2 bulk phase. The reported results have a relative standard deviation in most cases of less than 1.0 % and are in good agreement with literature values at low pressures. However, at higher pressures (up to 45 MPa), there is a significant scatter in the published data; the reasons for this are discussed. Measurements in the present work extend the pressure range of available data up to pressures of 60 MPa.
We report the interfacial tension between carbon dioxide and aqueous solutions of the mixed salt system (0.864 NaCl + 0.136 KCl) with total salt molalities between (0.98 and 4.95) mol•kg −1 . The measurements were made at temperatures between (298 and 473) K at various pressures up to 50 MPa by means of imaging a pendant drop of CO 2 -saturated brine surrounded by a water-saturated CO 2 phase. The expanded uncertainties at 95 % confidence are 0.05 K in temperature, 70 kPa in pressure, and for interfacial tension γ, the larger of 0.016γ and 0.6 mN•m −1 . The results of the study indicate that the interfacial tension increases linearly with the molality of the salt solution. An empirical equation has been developed to represent the present results as a function of temperature, pressure, and molality with an expanded uncertainty of 1.6 mN•m −1 .
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