Background Global assessments of antibiotic consumption have relied on pharmaceutical sales data that do not measure individual-level use, and are often unreliable or unavailable for low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs). To help fill this evidence gap, we compiled data from national surveys in LMICs in 2005-17 reporting antibiotic use for sick children under the age of 5 years. Methods Based on 132 Demographic and Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys from 73 LMICs, we analysed trends in reported antibiotic use among children under 5 years of age with fever, diarrhoea, or cough with fast or difficult breathing by WHO region, World Bank income classification, and symptom complaint. A logit transformation was used to estimate the outcome using a linear Bayesian regression model. The model included country-level socioeconomic, disease incidence, and health system covariates to generate estimates for country-years with missing values. Findings Across LMICs, reported antibiotic use among sick children under 5 years of age increased from 36•8% (uncertainty interval [UI] 28•8-44•7) in 2005 to 43•1% (33•2-50•5) in 2017. Low-income countries had the greatest relative increase; in these countries, reported antibiotic use for sick children under 5 years of age rose 34% during the study period, from 29•6% (21•2-41•1) in 2005 to 39•5% (32•9-47•6) in 2017, although it remained the lowest of any income group throughout the study period. Interpretation We found a limited but steady increase in reported antibiotic use for sick children under 5 years of age across LMICs in 2005-17, although overlapping UIs complicate interpretation. The increase was largely driven by gains in low-income countries. Our study expands the evidence base from LMICs, where strengthening antibiotic consumption and resistance surveillance is a global health priority.

This study aimed to analyze any reported antibiotic use for children aged <5 years with fever, diarrhea or cough with fast or difficult breathing (outcome) from low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) during 2005-2017 by user characteristics: rural/urban residence, maternal education, household wealth, and healthcare source visited. Methods: Based on 132 demographic and health surveys and multiple indicator cluster surveys from 73 LMICs, the outcome by user characteristics for all country-years was estimated using a hierarchical Bayesian linear regression model. Results: Across LMICs during 2005-2017, the greatest relative increases in the outcome occurred in rural areas, poorest quintiles and least educated populations, particularly in low-income countries and South-East Asia. In low-income countries, rural areas had a 72% relative increase from 17.8% (Uncertainty Interval (UI): 5.2%-44.9%) in 2005 to 30.6% (11.7%-62.1%) in 2017, compared to a 29% relative increase in urban areas from 27.1% (8.7%-58.2%) in 2005 to 34.9% (13.3%-67.3%) in 2017. Despite these increases, the outcome was consistently highest in urban areas, wealthiest quintiles, and populations with the highest maternal education. Conclusion: These estimates suggest that the increasing reported antibiotic use for sick children aged <5 years in LMICs during 2005-2017 was driven by gains among groups often underserved by formal health services.

Objectives To describe patterns and contextual determinants of antibiotic prescribing for febrile under-five outpatients at primary and secondary healthcare facilities across Bugisu, Eastern Uganda. Methods We surveyed 37 public and private-not-for-profit healthcare facilities and conducted a retrospective review of antimicrobial prescribing patterns among febrile under-five outpatients (with a focus on antibiotics) in 2019–20, based on outpatient registers. Multilevel logistic regression analysis was used to identify determinants of antibiotic prescribing at patient- and healthcare facility-levels. Results Antibiotics were prescribed for 62.2% of 3471 febrile under-five outpatients. There were a total of 2478 antibiotic prescriptions of 22 antibiotic types: amoxicillin (52.2%), co-trimoxazole (14.7%), metronidazole (6.9%), gentamicin (5.7%), ceftriaxone (5.3%), ampicillin/cloxacillin (3.6%), penicillin (3.1%), and others (8.6%). Acute upper respiratory tract infection (AURTI) was the commonest single indication for antibiotic prescribing, with 76.3% of children having AURTI as their only documented diagnosis receiving antibiotic prescriptions. Only 9.2% of children aged 2–59 months with non-severe pneumonia received antibiotic prescriptions in line with national guidelines. Higher health centre levels, and private-not-for-profit ownership (adjusted OR, 4.30; 95% CI, 1.91–9.72) were significant contextual determinants of antibiotic prescribing. Conclusions We demonstrated a high antibiotic prescribing prevalence among febrile under-five outpatients in Bugisu, Eastern Uganda, including prescriptions for co-trimoxazole and ampicillin/cloxacillin (which are not indicated in the management of the common causes of under-five febrile illness in Uganda). Study findings may be linked to limited diagnostic capacity and inadequate antibiotic availability, which require prioritization in interventions aimed at improving rational antibiotic prescribing among febrile under-five outpatients.

Objectives To analyse trends in reported antibiotic use for children aged &lt;5 years with fever, diarrhoea or cough with fast or difficult breathing (outcome) from low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) during 2005–17, disaggregated by the following user characteristics: rural/urban residence, maternal education, household wealth and healthcare source visited. Methods Based on 132 Demographic and Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys from 73 LMICs, the outcome, disaggregated by user characteristics for all country-years was estimated using a hierarchical Bayesian linear regression model. Results Across LMICs during 2005–17, the greatest relative increases in the outcome occurred in rural areas, poorest quintiles and least educated populations, particularly in low-income countries and South-East Asia. In low-income countries, rural areas had a 72% relative increase from 17.8% [uncertainty interval (UI): 5.2%–44.9%] in 2005 to 30.6% (11.7%–62.1%) in 2017, compared with a 29% relative increase in urban areas from 27.1% (8.7%–58.2%) in 2005 to 34.9% (13.3%–67.3%) in 2017. Despite these increases, the outcome was consistently highest in urban areas, wealthiest quintiles, and populations with the highest maternal education. Conclusions These estimates suggest that the increasing reported antibiotic use for sick children aged &lt;5 years in LMICs during 2005–17 was driven by gains among groups often underserved by formal health services.

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