Oogenesis in fishes follows a universal plan; yet, due to differences in the synchrony and rate of egg development, spawning frequency varies from daily to once in a lifetime. Some species spawn and feed in separate areas, during different seasons, by storing energy and drawing on it later for reproduction (i.e. capital breeding). Other species spawn using energy acquired locally, throughout a prolonged spawning season, allocating energy directly to reproduction (i.e. income breeding). Capital breeders tend to ovulate all at once and are more likely to be distributed at boreal latitudes. Income breeding allows small fish to overcome allometric constraints on egg production. Income breeders can recover more quickly when good‐feeding conditions are re‐established, which is a benefit to adults regarding bet‐hedging spawning strategies. Many species exhibit mixed capital‐ and income‐breeding patterns. An individual's position along this capital–income continuum may shift with ontogeny or in relation to environmental conditions, so breeding patterns are a conditional reproductive strategy. Poor‐feeding environments can lead to delayed maturation, skipped spawning, fewer spawning events per season or fewer eggs produced per event. In a few cases, variations in feeding environments appear to affect recruitment variability. These flexible processes of energy acquisition and allocation allow females to prioritize their own condition over their propagules' condition at any given spawning opportunity, thereby investing energy cautiously to maximize lifetime reproductive value. These findings have implications for temporal and spatial sampling designs, for measurement and interpretation of fecundity, and for interpreting fishery and ecosystem assessments.

No abstract

In 2011, a large multivessel survey was conducted to provide nearly synoptic sampling of Red Snapper Lutjanus campechanus throughout their reproductive season in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico. A total of 2,487 Red Snapper were caught with a female : male ratio that was approximately 1:1. The ovaries of 1,002 females were histologically examined. Females (n = 391) were found with spawning markers (postovulatory follicles and hydrated oocytes) throughout the study area, but primarily in outer shelf waters. Statistical models were developed to quantify and test the dependence of the proportion of females bearing spawning markers (spawning fraction) on female length and age, time of year, depth, gear type (vertical line or longline), or region (east or west of the Mississippi River). Most of the variance in spawning fraction was explained by the time of year; spawning fractions were generally low in spring, peaked in midsummer, and declined by fall. There was also strong statistical evidence of a positive relationship between spawning fraction and either age or length. The effects of region and gear type were not significant once time of year and size or age were accounted for. These results demonstrate the need to account for differences in the time of year and age structure of the population when the productivity of populations of Red Snapper are compared. For example, productivity has been hypothesized to be greater in the western Gulf than in the eastern Gulf, as evidenced by regional patterns of egg and larval abundance. Our results suggest that this regional difference is not due to any intrinsic difference in the biology of the fish, but simply a consequence of there being more large, old Red Snapper in the western Gulf. Recent stock assessments have indicated that Red Snapper are increasing in abundance and there is a need to continue monitoring to detect any possible compensation in reproduction. Received November 25, 2014; accepted April 2, 2015