Change resides at the heart of leadership. Organizational culture is one of many situational variables that have emerged as pivotal in determining the success of leaders' efforts to implement change initiatives. This article introduces a process model of organizational change in cultural context (OC3 Model) derived from ethnographic analysis. The model delineates the differential impact of organizational culture at every stage of change implementation. Eight stages of cultural influence are identified and illustrated. Research propositions are stated to encourage refinement of the model. Theoretical and practical implications for leadership are explored; applications for resolving organizational immunity to change are discussed.

The extrapolation of theories of cognitive modeling from psychological contexts to the domain of information systems design has raised empirical questions regarding the validity and reliability of these techniques in the new applications environment. Kelly's (1955) theory of personal construct psychology (PCP) is one such theory which, together with the repertory grid technique of cognitive modeling, is being explored for use in systems development. Since the repertory grid constitutes a mechanism for both the elicitation and the representation of cognitive models, it has been suggested for incorporation into intelligent front-end interfaces for information storage and retrieval systems (ISRS). Previous applications of the grid have emphasized the personal and ideographic characteristics of personal construct systems. New applications in information systems design require verification of the grid's utility and reliability for rendering faithful representations of impersonal and communal knowledge. The research presented here provides a test of the repertory grid for representing commonality of construing among members of a homogenous group of subjects. Commonality of construing is demonstrated on two sets of constructs. Some differences are observed between constructs generated by the subjects and those provided for them by an "expert." Implications of this effect for the application of PCP to ISRS design are discussed.

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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to clarify the role of organizational culture in governing the dynamics of resistance and facilitation of change by explicating the operational mechanisms underlying the Model of Organizational Change in Cultural Context (OC3 Model). Design/methodology/approach – A conceptual definition of facilitation is introduced that parallels the psychosocial construction of resistance, while departing from traditional views that cast these constructs as polar opposites. Within the context of the OC3 Model, a multifaceted perspective on organizational change is advanced in which facilitation takes place alongside of, rather than in the absence of, resistance. Findings – Two sources of resistance and facilitation are delineated, both stemming from the degree of cultural alignment of the content (strategic initiatives) and process (implementation strategies) elements of strategic change. The dynamic interplay of these independent sources of resistance and facilitation is explored within the context of the OC3 Model where the consequences of cultural alignment or misalignment are considered with respect to change implementation and linked to established theory and empirical evidence. Four interaction effects emerge from this analysis: augmentation, undermining, prevailing and immunity. A visual model illuminating the countervailing effects of facilitation on resistance is provided, along with illustrative examples derived from multiple ethnographic field studies. Practical implications – Theoretical and practical implications of these interaction effects for advancing scholarship and leading organizational change are explored. Originality/value – Articulating this theoretical extension of the OC3 Model provides a valuable corrective to extant theories of change that afford equal importance to all culturally embedded sources of resistance and fail to account for the counter balancing effects of facilitation.

The problem and the solution. One of the greatest challenges to successful organization development is managing the impact of unexpected events on planned institutional change initiatives. Too often, in the face of crises, organizational development efforts are put on autopilot and attention is shifted away from identified objectives to the immediate problem at hand. This article examines three organizational change initiatives undertaken at a Midwestern land-grant university during the period 2000 to 2004. Along with planned change, the authors examine the impact of unexpected budget cuts and leadership turnover, which threatened to derail the change initiatives. From this case study, they elucidate some of the unique challenges for implementing change strategies in institutions of higher education and the particular challenges posed by the emergence of unanticipated circumstances.