Two-wheeler vehicles in Delhi, India-roughly 70% of the total vehicle fleet-are responsible for a significant portion of the city's vehicle emissions and petroleum consumption. An inspection and maintenance (I/M) program that ensures vehicle emission control systems are well maintained can complement other emission reduction strategies. This paper presents the initial findings of extensive data collected on vehicle characteristics and emissions for two-wheeler vehicles operating in Delhi in a series of I/M camps conducted by the Society of Indian Automobile Manufacturers and various partners in late 1999.The analysis shows idle HC and CO emissions [measured in terms of parts per million (ppm) and volume % (vol %), respectively] in a slow declining trend with subsequent model years, reflecting tighter emission standards and more advanced emission technologies. The I/M benefits-3 vol % and 39% reduction in idle and mass CO, respectively; 40 vol % and 22% reduction in idle and mass HC, respectively; and a 10-20% increase in fuel efficiency-were higher than those reported in the literature. Although these benefits are substantial, any implementation strategy needs to consider cost-effectiveness. In the present study, only 10% of vehicles-contributing 22% of the total vehicle emissions-failed the idle CO standard. Fleet emissions data variability necessitates a large sample size to develop a baseline for the vehicle fleet, but a smaller, scientifically designed sample and better data collection quality could periodically track the benefits at future camps. BACKGROUNDDelhi and other major Indian cities are among the most polluted cities in the world. Vehicles, which contributẽ 20% of total CO 2 emissions in India, are a major source of urban air pollution and its related health impacts. The annual averages of suspended PM concentrations in 1997 were recorded as 295 µg/m 3 in residential areas and 400 µg/m 3 in commercial areas. 1 They are higher than the Central Pollution Control Board limit of 150 µg/m 3 and much higher than the World Health Organization guidelines of 60-90 µg/m 3 . Two-wheeler vehicles, which account for ~70% of the total vehicle fleet, are responsible for a significant portion of the total vehicle emissions and petroleum consumption. It is estimated that, of the total annual vehicular emissions in Delhi, two-wheeler vehicles contribute 6% of the CO 2 , 27% of the CO, 21% of the PM, and 47% of the HC.
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A supervisory control and data gathering system has been installed in the North Pembina Cardium Unit No. 1, which is operated by Socony Mobil Oil of Canada, Ltd. This system provides, at one central location, read-out ofproduction data, logging of alarm conditions and supervisory control over thirty-five satellite production stations and two central treating stations, handling a total of 462 producing wells. The production data reported include well-test oil, water and gas volumes. The supervisory control system provides remote control of all production wells. This system was designed making use of essentially conventional electrical components. It has been in successful operation for more than eighteen months, effecting reduced maintenance and operating costs while providing increased speed and accuracy in the gathering and processing of production data. Introduction In the North Pembina Cardium Unit No.1, a total of 462 wells produce into thirty-five satellite well testing units. The production from the satellite units is moved through a pipeline gathering system and is processed at two treating plants. A map showing the production system field layout is given in Figure 1. The design of this production system has been described in previous publications (1, 2). The satellite units provide individual well production test measurements of oil, water and gas volumes, and regulate and monitor oil production and testing. The treating plants accept crude-water emulsions from the satelliteunits, dehydrate and ship the oil, and treat and dispose of the water. Gas is separated and sold from the satellite units and the treating plants. This production system requires that considerable measurement and operating status information be acquired from the satellites and the plants which aredistributed over an area of roughly 70 square miles. In addition, certaincontrol functions must be effected at these locations. For the purpose of both gathering the information and effecting the needed control, a centralized data gathering and supervisory control system is provided. This system has been inoperation for 18 months and is highly successful.
This article focuses on the security risk in the container supply chain. It provides an overview of the technical and policy initiatives that are being implemented by international organizations, governments, and the private sector to enhance security in the container supply chain.
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