Licensing approaches, even for comparable technologies, can vary considerably from case to case and from institution to institution based on circumstances particular to each specific invention, business opportunity, licensee and university. In spite of this uniqueness, universities share certain core values that can and should be maintained to the fullest extent possible in all technology transfer agreements.In the summer of 2006, Stanford University's then Dean of Research Arthur Bienenstock convened a small meeting of research officers, licensing directors and a representative from the Association of American Medical Colleges to brainstorm about important societal, policy, legislative and other issues in university technology transfer. Representatives of the participating institutions, listed below, have tried to capture in this document certain shared perspectives that emerged from that meeting. Recognizing that each license is subject to unique influences that render 'cookie-cutter' solutions insufficient, it is our aim in releasing this paper to encourage our colleagues in the academic technology transfer profession to analyze each licensing opportunity individually in a manner that reflects the business needs and values of their institution, but at the same time, to the extent appropriate, also to bear in mind the concepts articulated herein when crafting agreements with industry. We recognize that many of these points are already being practiced. In the end, we hope to foster thoughtful approaches and encourage creative solutions to complex problems that may arise when universities license technologies in the public interest and for society's benefit.
In Europe and in many developing countries, genetically modified (GM) crops are effectively banned. Some countries limit the direct use of such crops as food for human consumption to a few niche agricultural products, such as papaya, sweet corn, and squash. These restrictions can be traced to public decision-making processes reflecting the interplay of sometimes conflicting economic interests of different groups within society. This chapter examines the political economy underlying the regulation of biotechnology in agriculture. It begins with a review of the literature on the politics and political economy of agricultural biotechnology policies, followed by a discussion of how political choices regarding GM crops have evolved over time. It then considers the agricultural economics literature regarding the distributional impacts of the adoption of GM crops, focusing on the impact of the introduction of GM crop varieties on the economic welfare of different groups in society. It also assesses the formation and evolution of agricultural biotechnology policies in Europe and their effects on salient interest groups such as consumers, farmers, environmental interest groups, and industrial sectors.
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