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The fitness of an organism can be affected by conditions experienced during early development. In light of the impact that oxidative stress can have on the health and ageing of a bird species, this study evaluated factors accounting for the variation in oxidative stress levels in nestlings of the Eurasian kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) by measuring the serum concentration of reactive oxygen metabolites and the serum antioxidant barrier against hypochlorite-induced oxidation. The ratio between these two variables was considered as an index of oxidative stress, with higher values meaning higher oxidative damage. Six-chick broods showed the highest level of oxidative stress, while no effect of sex was found. Age showed an inverse relationship with the oxidants and the levels of oxidative stress, with younger birds having higher levels. Hatching date, body condition, body mass and carotenoid concentration did not show any relationship with oxidants, antioxidants or degree of oxidative stress. These findings suggest that intrabrood sibling competition could play a role in determining oxidative stress, and that in carnivorous birds other antioxidant molecules could be more important than carotenoids to reduce oxidative stress.

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This study summarises the results of the levels of 21 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in 50 selected pooled samples representing 15 food commodities with the special focus on those of animal origin, as meat, seafood, fish, milk, dairy products and hen eggs, which are commonly consumed in various European markets, e.g. Czech, Italian, Belgian and Norwegian. A new, rapid sample preparation approach based on the QuEChERS extraction procedure was applied. Ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) employing electrospray ionisation (ESI) in negative mode was used for the quantification of target analytes. Method quantification limits (MQLs) were in the range of 1-10 ng kg(-1) (ng l(-1)) for fish, meat, hen eggs, cheese and milk, and in the range of 2.5-125 ng kg(-1) for butter. Only 16 of the group of 21 PFASs were found in at least one analysed sample. From 16 PFASs, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) was the most frequently detected analyte present in approximately 50% of samples (in the range of 0.98-2600 ng kg(-1)). PFCAs with C8-C14 carbon chain were presented in approximately 20% of samples. The concentration ranges of individual compounds in the respective groups of PFASs were: 2.33-76.3 ng kg(-1) for PFSAs (without PFOS), 4.99-961 ng kg(-1) for PFCAs, 10.6-95.4 ng kg(-1) for PFPAs, and 1.61-519 ng kg(-1) for FOSA. The contamination level in the analysed food commodities decreased in the following order: seafood > pig/bovine liver >> freshwater/marine fish > hen egg > meat >> butter. When comparing the total contamination and profiles of PFASs in food commodities that originated from various sampling countries, differences were identified, and the contents decreased as follows: Belgium >> Norway, Italy > Czech Republic.

The dietary exposure to selected PFAAs was estimated in four selected European states (Belgium, the Czech Republic, Italy and Norway) representing Western, Southern, Eastern and Northern Europe. The harmonised sampling programme designed in the European Union project PERFOOD was targeted at identifying seven selected PFAAs, including perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), in food items that are most important both in terms of consumption and based on known high contamination patterns. The estimated average dietary exposure for adults (18-64 years) and children (3-9 years) is generally below or close to 1 ng kg⁻¹ BW day⁻¹ for all seven PFAAs. Considering the high consumption of food groups that contribute most to the exposure does not result in estimates exceeding 4 ng kg⁻¹ BW day⁻¹. Thus, based on the TDIs proposed by EFSA for PFOS (150 ng kg⁻¹ BW day⁻¹) and PFOA (1500 ng kg⁻¹ BW day⁻¹), no concern can be identified. There are distinct dietary exposure patterns from region to region as a result of different food consumption and contamination patterns. Foods of plant origin (e.g. fruit and vegetables) are most important for the dietary exposure to PFHxA, PFOA and PFHxS, while the consumption of foods of animal origin (particularly fish and seafood) mostly contributes to the dietary exposure to PFDA and PFUnDA. For the dietary exposure to PFNA and PFOS, food of animal and plant origin contributes with equal importance. In conclusion, region-to-region differences as well as the relative importance of food of different origin for each PFAA should be paid more attention in further research.