In this paper we are interested in general properties of classes of transition system specifications in Plotkin style. The discussion takes place in a setting of labelled transition systems. The states of the transition systems are terms generated by a single sorted signature and the transitions between states are defined by conditional rules over tne syntax. It is argued that in this setting it is natural to require that strong bisimulation equivalence be a congruence on the states of the transition systems. A general format, called the 1xfi/1yxt format, is presented for the rules in a transition system specification, such that bisimulation is always a congruence when all the rules fit this format. With a series of examples it is demonstrated that the t.i:fi/1yxt format cannot be generalized in any obvious way. Another series of examples illustrates the usefulness of our congruence theorem. Briefly we touch upon the issue of modularity of transition system specifications. It is argued that certain pathological tyft/tyxt rules (the ones which are not pure) can be disqualified because they behave badly with respect to modularization. Next we address the issue of full abstraction. We characterize the completed trace congruence induced by the operators in pure tyft/tyxt format as 2-nested simulation equivalence. The pure tyft/tyxt format includes the format given by de Simone (Theoret. Comput. Sci. 37, 245-267 (1985)) but is incomparable to the GSOS format of Bloom,
Abstract. This paper introduces the model of linearly priced timed automata as an extension of timed automata, with prices on both transitions and locations. For this model we consider the minimum-cost reachability problem: i.e. given a linearly priced timed automaton and a target state, determine the minimum cost of executions from the initial state to the target state. This problem generalizes the minimum-time reachability problem for ordinary timed automata. We prove decidability of this problem by offering an algorithmic solution, which is based on a combination of branch-and-bound techniques and a new notion of priced regions. The latter allows symbolic representation and manipulation of reachable states together with the cost of reaching them.
Polymers show great potential as a durable and high density alternative for data storage and for this purpose the natural polymer DNA has already attracted much interest from researchers. A DNA based storage system, which makes use of the four nucleotides to store binary codes, is more durable and can store information with a much higher density than conventional storage systems. Synthetic polymers have properties that make them even more suitable for data storage, at least in principle, if complete control over their composition, i.e. monomer sequence can be obtained. This review addresses the current status of data storage in DNA, proteins, and synthetic polymers, with the objective to overcome the problems of the current data storage technology. Written records are crucial for our understanding of past civilizations. They are so important, that we commonly define "history" as the study of the past as it is described in written documents, and refer to earlier events as "prehistory". The main reason why we know so much about certain past civilizations is that they used durable media to store their writings and art. Thus we learned about old civilizations in Mesopotamia through 5,300-year-old clay tablets from Uruk that have been preserved until today, we learned about the late Shang dynasty (c. 1200-1050 BC) from China through inscriptions on oracle bones, and about the Olmec civilization in Mexico through the Cascajal Block, a stone slab with 3,000-year-old writing made of serpentinite 1. Digital data has completely changed the way we write, use, and access information nowadays and we live in what is commonly referred to as the 'digital world.' It is expected that the need for digital information will continue to grow, reaching the level of 44 trillion gigabytes in 2020 2-5. However, current data storage suffers from digital obsolescence: although the bits and bytes of the digital world are eternal, at least in principle, the storage devices are not. They deteriorate over time, usually within a few decades. For instance, memory cards and chips are maintainable for circa 10 years, while standard hard drives are susceptible to magnetic fields, high temperatures, and mechanical failures 6-8. The decay of the storage media results in data loss, which is currently prevented by a constant shuffling of data between different devices and facilities. Due to the explosion of digital data, there is a constant need to migrate to new technologies that do not always support the old technologies 9. Hence much of the information that we have stored on floppy disks, tapes, CD-ROMS, spinning hard drives and flash memory will soon be lost forever. And the challenges do not stop here. Current storage technologies require significant space and enormous amounts of energy 10. The world data centers currently consume annually ca. 420
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