We performed intake, digestibility and ingesta passage studies in 11 Indian rhinoceroses (Rhinoceros unicornis) from four zoological institutions, using total faecal collection for the quantification of faecal output. The regularly fed zoo ration of roughage and concentrates (ration RC) and a roughage-only ration (ration R) were used; the roughage source differed between the facilities and comprised grass hay, grass silage, straw and lucerne hay. Dry matter intake ranged between 0.8 and 1.3% of body weight on ration RC and 0.5-1.2% on ration R. Digestibility coefficients achieved were similar to those reported for horses on diets of comparable composition. Endogenous losses as determined by linear regression analysis were within the range reported for horses. Measurements of faecal volatile fatty acids, faecal lactate and faecal pH also showed similarity to similar measurements in horses. The mean retention times of fluids (Co-EDTA) and particles (Cr-mordanted fibre <2 mm) in the whole gastrointestinal tract averaged 42 and 61 h, respectively, and were the longest ever recorded in a monogastric ungulate with this marker system. The results suggest that the horse is a useful model animal for designing diets for Indian rhinoceroses. Why digestive parameters are similar between these species in spite of enormous differences in body weight and retention times remains to be answered.

The objective of this study was to determine the major nutrient composition of Indian rhinoceros milk ( Rhinoceros unicornis) over the first 13 mo of an 18-mo lactation period and to compare the results to those of previous studies on rhinoceros, African elephant ( Loxodonta africana), and horse milk ( Equus ferus caballus). The following parameters were measured: dry matter (DM), crude ash (ASH), crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), nitrogen-free extract (NFE; calculated), lactose, calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), fatty acids (FAs), and gross energy (GE). DM, ASH, CP, and EE were determined with a proximate analysis, lactose with infrared spectroscopy and an enzymatic method, minerals with an autoanalyzer, FA with gas chromatography, and GE with bomb calorimetry. Milk samples were collected from two Indian rhinoceros cows from Zoo Basel. Rhino A gave birth to her third calf on 10 September 2012; three samples were collected and analyzed (colostrum, milk 1 wk and 2 wk postpartum). Rhino B gave birth to her eighth calf on 05 October 2013; samples were collected and 15 were chosen for the analyses (from colostrum to 13 mo postpartum). The composition of rhino B's colostrum was 13.8% DM (wet-weight basis), 4.8% ASH, 61.8% CP, 0.7% EE, 32.6% NFE, 26.7% lactose, 0.59% Ca, 0.54% P, 0.2% Mg (DM basis), and 20.3 MJ GE/kg DM. Rhino B's sample collected 13 mo postpartum averaged 8.0% DM (wet-weight basis), 3.6% ASH, 16.3% CP, 1.8% EE, 78.3% NFE, 84.7% lactose, 0.54% Ca, 0.48% P, 0.09% Mg (on DM basis), and 17.43 MJ GE/kg DM. The main FAs in rhino B's and rhino A's samples were C10 : 0, C12 : 0, C16 : 0, C18 : 1n9c, and C18 : 2n6c. Milk of the Indian rhinoceros is low in fat and protein but high in lactose, which is comparable to the milk composition of other rhinoceros species and horses, but not African elephants.

Preventing obesity in zoo animals is increasingly recognized as an important husbandry objective. To achieve this goal, body condition scoring (BCS) systems are available for an ever-increasing number of species. Here, we present a BCS for the greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) based on an evaluation (on a scale from 1 to 5) of seven different body regions, and report resulting scores for 62 animals from 27 facilities, based on digital photographs. In animals above 4 years of age, this BCS correlated with the body mass:shoulder height ratio. Although differences between the sexes for individual regions were noted (with consistently higher scores in males for the neck and shoulder and in parous females for the abdomen), the average BCS of all regions did not differ significantly between males (4.3 ± 0.4) and females (4.1 ± 0.5). Linking the BCS to results of a questionnaire survey and studbook information, there were no differences in BCS between animals with and without foot problems or between parous and non-parous females. In a very limited sample of 11 females, those eight that had been diagnosed with leiomyoma in a previous study had a higher BCS (range 3.9-4.9) than the three that had been diagnosed as leiomyoma-free (range 3.5-3.7). The BCS was correlated to the amount of food offered as estimated from the questionnaire. Adjusting the amounts and the nutritional quality of the diet components is an evident measure to maintain animals at a target BCS (suggested as 3-3.5). Zoo Biol. 35:432-443, 2016. © Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Birds exhibit exceptional longevity and are thus regarded as a convenient model to study the intrinsic mechanisms of aging. The oxidative stress theory of aging suggests that individuals age because molecules, cells, tissues, organs, and, ultimately, animals accumulate oxidative damage over time. Accumulation of damage progressively reduces the level of antioxidant defences that are expected to decline with age. To test this theory, we measured the resistance of red blood cells to free radical attack in a captive population of greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) of known age ranging from 0.3 to 45 years. We observed a convex relationship with young adults (12-20 years old) having greater resistance to oxidative stress than immature flamingos (5 months old) and old flamingos (30-45 years old). Our results suggest that the antioxidant detoxifying system must go through a maturation process before being completely functional. It then declines in older adults, supporting the oxidative theory of aging. Oxidative stress could hence play a significant role in shaping the pattern of senescence in a very long-lived bird species.

Pododermatitis is a worldwide problem in captive flaamingos. We performed an evaluation of different influence factors (age, sex, weight, origin, breeding status) and a comparison of foot lesions between several zoological institutions and the feet of free-ranging Greater flamingos (Phoenicopterus roseus). A scoring system was used to determine the prevalence and types of lesions and severity. Cracks and nodules developed as early as 3 months of age and papillomatous growths as early as 6 to 7 months of age in captivity. Nodules with ulceration occurred significantly more often in birds older than 31 years and heavier than 4 kg. The comparison of different institutions revealed that birds kept in enclosures with natural-floored water ponds had significantly less severe lesions than birds kept in concrete water ponds. None of the freeranging flamingos, which live on a muddy underground, showed any lesion. This study demonstrates that flooring, weight and age are important in the onset and progression of pododermatitis in flamingos. Centre de recherche pour la conservation des zones humides méditerranéennes, le Sambuc, France SummaryPododermatitis is a worldwide problem in captive flamingos. We performed an evaluation of