A significant barrier inhibiting multiplexed imaging in the near-infrared (NIR) is the extensive trial and error associated with fine-tuning NIR dyes. In particular, the need to synthesize and experimentally evaluate dye derivatives in order to empirically identify those that can be used in multiplexing applications, requires a large investment of time. While coarse-tuning efforts benefit from computational prediction that can be used to identify target dye structures for synthetic campaigns, errors in computational prediction remain too large to accurately parse modifications aimed at fine-tuning changes in dye absorbance and emission. To address this issue, we screened different levels of theory and identified a time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) approach that can rapidly, as opposed to synthesis and experimental evaluation, estimate absorbance and emission. By calibrating these computational estimations of absorbance and emission to experimentally determined parameters for a panel of existing NIR dyes, we obtain calibration curves that can be used to accurately predict the effect of fine-tuning modifications in new dyes. We demonstrate the predictive power of this calibrated dataset using seven previously unreported dyes, obtaining mean percent errors in absorbance and emission of 2.2 and 2.8 %, respectively. This approach provides a significant timesavings, relative to synthesis and evaluation of dye derivatives, and can be used to focus synthetic campaigns on the most promising dye structures. The new dyes described herein can be utilized for multiplexed imaging, and the experimentally calibrated dataset will provide the dye chemistry community with a means to rapidly identify fine-tuned NIR dyes in silico to guide subsequent synthetic campaigns.
This article is a highlight of the paper by Ivanic and Schnermann et al. in this issue of Photochemistry and Photobiology (Daly et al. Photochem. Photobiol. 2022). The collaborative team utilized computational approaches to investigate the influence of electron-withdrawing groups at the 10 0 position of tetramethylrhodamine (TMR). Leveraging this information, the team was able to extend the emission of the TMR scaffold into the shortwave-infrared region (SWIR, 1000-2500 nm) by incorporation of a ketone functional group at the 10 0 position (Daly et al. Photochem. Photobiol. 2022). This work provides the first example of a TMR derivative with peak SWIR emission (k abs : 862 nm, k em : 1058 nm). The authors utilize the ketone rhodamine scaffold to generate fluorogenic, pH-responsive reporters. This work demonstrates the potential of the classic xanthene scaffold for use as a SWIR reporter, an important step in the ultimate expansion of the repertoire of small-molecule organic fluorophore scaffolds available for deep-tissue imaging applications.
Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) is an emerging imaging technique with applications in preclinical and point-of-care settings. PAI is a light-in, sound-out technique which uses pulsed laser excitation with near-infrared (NIR) light to elicit local temperature increases through non-radiative relaxation events, ultimately leading to the production of ultrasound waves. The classical xanthene dye scaffold has found numerous applications in fluorescence imaging, however, xanthenes are rarely utilized for PAI since they do not typically display NIR absorbance. Herein, we report the ability of Nebraska Red (NR) dyes to produce photoacoustic (PA) signal and provide a rational design approach to reduce the hydrolysis rate of ester containing dyes. By converting a relatively hydrolytically labile phosphinate ester to a more stable thiophosphinate ester, we were able to reduce the rate of ester hydrolysis 3.6-fold within a new dye, termed SNR700. Leveraging the stabilized NIR absorbance of this dye, we were able to construct the first rhodamine-based, turn-on PAI imaging probe for hypochlorous acid (HOCl) that is compatible with commercial PA instrumentation. This probe, termed SNR700-HOCl, has a limit of detection of 500 nM for HOCl and is capable of producing contrast up to 2.9 cm deep in tissues using PAI. This work provides a new set of rhodamine-based PAI agents as well as a rational design approach to stabilize esterified versions of NR dyes with desirable properties for PAI. In the long term, the reagents described herein could be utilized to enable non-invasive imaging of HOCl in disease-relevant model systems.
Near-infrared (NIR) dyes are desirable for biological imaging applications including photoacoustic and fluorescence imaging. Nonetheless, current NIR dyes are often plagued by relatively large molecular weights, poor water solubility, and limited photostability. Herein, we provide the first examples of azaphosphinate dyes. These dyes display maximal absorbance and emission above 750 nm and the inclusion of a phosphinate functionality virtually abolishes aggregation in aqueous solutions compared to the parent dye scaffold. The dramatically improved water solubility of this dye class enables applications in both photoacoustic and fluorescence imaging. In the case of photoacoustic imaging, we demonstrate 4.1-fold enhanced signal intensity compared to commonly used standards, the ability to multiplex with existing dyes in blood samples, and imaging depths of 2.75 cm in tissue. An improved derivative for fluorescence imaging displayed substantially reduced photobleaching compared to the FDA-approved indocyanine green dye and could be used to selectively label mitochondria in living cells. To the best of our knowledge, azaphosphinate dyes are the lowest molecular weight, water soluble dyes with absorbance and emission in the 750 nm range. This new dye class provides a robust scaffold for the development of photoacoustic and NIR fluorescence imaging agents.
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