The present study translated the 30-item Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory (CMNI-30) from English to German. Indices for measurement invariance across gender and sexual orientation, test-retest reliabilities, and indicators of convergent (positive correlations with the Male Role Norms Inventory-Short Form and the Gender Role Conflict Scale-Short Form) and discriminant (no correlations with the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale) validity were estimated. Working from a sample of 1,012 German-speaking persons (63.9% cisgender men and 36.1% cisgender women; age: M = 40.4 years, SD = 15.5) in Europe, multigroup structural equation modeling confirmed the 10-factor structure of the German-language version of the CMNI-30. Across gender, at least partial scalar invariance can be assumed and across sexual orientation strict invariance was detected. The German-language version of the CMNI-30 showed adequate evidence for convergent validity and test-retest reliability. Discriminant validity was only partially supported. Taken together, the CMNI-30 measures similar concepts in women and men as well as in heterosexually identified and sexual minority persons and can be recommended for research and practice for the assessment of different domains of conformity to masculinity ideologies in German-speaking individuals. Public Significance StatementThe present study translated the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory−30 (CMNI-30) from English to German. The CMNI-30 assesses to what degree a person endorses and enacts behaviors that are traditionally expected by men. The study reveals that the instrument is reliable and valid in men and women as well as in heterosexually identified and sexual minority persons. Therefore, the Germanlanguage version of the CMNI-30 is recommended for research and practice for the assessment of conformity to masculinity ideologies in German-speaking individuals.

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Many women and men experience intimate partner violence (IPV) during their lifetime. However, only relatively few people actually seek formal help after such an experience. The current study applied the mediated-moderation model of self-compassion and stigma that has previously been used to explain men’s help-seeking behavior for depressive symptoms. The current study analyzed whether conformity to masculinity ideologies (CMI), self-stigma, and self-compassion were related to women’s and men’s intention to seek formal help after IPV experiences. A cross-sectional online questionnaire study was conducted with 491 German-speaking participants (65.8% women/34.2% men; age: M = 36.1 years; SD = 14.2). Participants read three vignettes about experienced IPV and then indicated how likely they would be to seek medical or psychological help if they were in the main character’s situation. Additionally, the Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, Self-Stigma of Seeking Help Scale, and Self-Compassion Scale were used. Separate manifest path models for women and men revealed that strong CMI was linked to strong self-stigma in women and men. In turn, strong self-stigma was linked to weak intentions to seek formal help after IPV experiences. In men, strong self-compassion weakened (i.e., “buffered”) the link between CMI and self-stigma. However, direct associations between strong CMI and weak intentions to seek formal help remained, especially for those participants with strong self-compassion. The current study adds to the existing literature on associations between CMI, self-compassion, and self-stigma by showing that those links are also relevant in women. However, self-compassion might not always act as a “buffer” and mediators that explain links between strong CMI and weak intentions to seek formal help in people with strong self-compassion need to be found in future studies.

Background High levels of self-compassion might increase men’s willingness to seek formal help, including those men, who rigidly conform to masculinity norms (CMN). However, self-compassion has rarely been considered as an enabling factor for women’s help-seeking intentions. The current study analyzed the links between CMN, self-stigma, self-compassion and willingness to seek formal help after experiences of interpersonal violence (IPV) in women and men. Methods A cross-sectional online-questionnaire study was conducted with 491 German-speaking participants (65.6% women/34.4% men; age: M = 36.1 years; SD = 14.2). Participants read three vignettes about experienced IPV. Afterwards, they indicated how likely they would be to seek medical or psychological help if they were in the main characters’ situation. The Conformity to Masculine Norms Inventory, Self-Stigma of Seeking Help Scale, Self-Compassion Scale were used. Separate manifest path models were calculated for women and men. Results CMN and low self-compassion were linked to strong self-stigma. In turn, strong self-stigma was associated with reduced help-seeking intentions. In men, the interaction term Self-Compassion x CMN on self-stigma indicated that strong CMN was linked to increased self-stigma, especially in men with low self-compassion. Also, indirect links between CMN and help-seeking intentions via self-stigma have been found. However, in people with strong self-compassion, direct links between CMN and help-seeking intentions became evident. Conclusions In women and men self-compassion was linked to reduced self-stigma. As is suggested from past research, self-compassion might “buffer” the link between CMN and self-stigma, especially in men. However, there might be an influence of strong CMN on help-seeking intentions also in people with strong self-compassion. This route might not be mediated by self-stigma and therefore, future research is needed to detect other potential mediators. Key messages • Self-compassion might “buffer” the link between CMN and self-stigma in men. • Future research is needed to study mediators between strong CMN and help-seeking intentions in people with strong self-compassion.