In order to understand adaptation processes and population dynamics, it is central to know how environmental parameters influence performance of organisms within populations, including their phenotypes. The impact of single or few particular parameters in concert was often assessed in laboratory and mesocosm experiments. However, under natural conditions, with many biotic and abiotic factors potentially interacting, outcomes on phenotypic changes may be different. To study the potential environmental impact on realized phenotypic plasticity within a natural population, we assessed metamorphic traits (developmental time, size and body mass) in an amphibian species, the European common frog Rana temporaria, since a) larval amphibians are known to exhibit high levels of phenotypic plasticity of these traits in response to habitat parameters and, b) the traits' features may strongly influence individuals' future performance and fitness. In 2007 we studied these metamorphic traits in 18 ponds spread over an area of 28 km2. A subset of six ponds was reinvestigated in 2009 and 2010. This study revealed locally high variances in metamorphic traits in this presumed generalist species. We detected profound differences between metamorphing froglets (up to factor ten); both between and within ponds, on a very small geographic scale. Parameters such as predation and competition as well as many other pond characteristics, generally expected to have high impact on development, could not be related to the trait differences. We observed high divergence of patterns of mass at metamorphosis between ponds, but no detectable pattern when metamorphic traits were compared between ponds and years. Our results indicate that environment alone, i.e. as experienced by tadpoles sharing the same breeding pond, can only partly explain the variability of metamorphic traits observed. This emphasizes the importance to assess variability of reaction norms on the individual level to explain within-population variability.
A 7‐year monitoring of potential oviposition ponds of the European common frog Rana temporaria, in northern Bavaria, Germany, indicated that breeding ponds were not randomly used. Site fidelity could not consistently explain this pattern. Because amphibians are known to select oviposition sites according to certain habitat characteristics, we investigated pond parameters that may drive breeding site selection in that area. We recorded 44 abiotic and biotic parameters, including variables within‐ponds, predator presence, as well as habitat characteristics of the terrestrial area surrounding the ponds. However, multifactorial statistics such as non‐metric multidimensional scaling, hierarchical clustering and random forest algorithm as well as single‐factor comparisons could not highlight common habitat features of chosen ponds. The results of this study indicate that breeding site choice is more than a pure function of habitat characteristics, and that understanding the reproductive biology, even of such a widespread species as R. temporaria, needs more research effort.
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