Although research on human-mediated exchanges of species has substantially intensified during the last centuries, we know surprisingly little about temporal dynamics of alien species accumulations across regions and taxa. Using a novel database of 45,813 first records of 16,926 established alien species, we show that the annual rate of first records worldwide has increased during the last 200 years, with 37% of all first records reported most recently (1970–2014). Inter-continental and inter-taxonomic variation can be largely attributed to the diaspora of European settlers in the nineteenth century and to the acceleration in trade in the twentieth century. For all taxonomic groups, the increase in numbers of alien species does not show any sign of saturation and most taxa even show increases in the rate of first records over time. This highlights that past efforts to mitigate invasions have not been effective enough to keep up with increasing globalization.

An understanding of risks to biodiversity is needed for planning action to slow current rates of decline and secure ecosystem services for future human use. Although the IUCN Red List criteria provide an effective assessment protocol for species, a standard global assessment of risks to higher levels of biodiversity is currently limited. In 2008, IUCN initiated development of risk assessment criteria to support a global Red List of ecosystems. We present a new conceptual model for ecosystem risk assessment founded on a synthesis of relevant ecological theories. To support the model, we review key elements of ecosystem definition and introduce the concept of ecosystem collapse, an analogue of species extinction. The model identifies four distributional and functional symptoms of ecosystem risk as a basis for assessment criteria: A) rates of decline in ecosystem distribution; B) restricted distributions with continuing declines or threats; C) rates of environmental (abiotic) degradation; and D) rates of disruption to biotic processes. A fifth criterion, E) quantitative estimates of the risk of ecosystem collapse, enables integrated assessment of multiple processes and provides a conceptual anchor for the other criteria. We present the theoretical rationale for the construction and interpretation of each criterion. The assessment protocol and threat categories mirror those of the IUCN Red List of species. A trial of the protocol on terrestrial, subterranean, freshwater and marine ecosystems from around the world shows that its concepts are workable and its outcomes are robust, that required data are available, and that results are consistent with assessments carried out by local experts and authorities. The new protocol provides a consistent, practical and theoretically grounded framework for establishing a systematic Red List of the world’s ecosystems. This will complement the Red List of species and strengthen global capacity to report on and monitor the status of biodiversity

We present a method for categorising and comparing alien or invasive species in terms of how damaging they are to the environment, that can be applied across all taxa, scales, and impact metrics.

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Biological invasions are a global consequence of an increasingly connected world and the rise in human population size. The numbers of invasive alien species – the subset of alien species that spread widely in areas where they are not native, affecting the environment or human livelihoods – are increasing. Synergies with other global changes are exacerbating current invasions and facilitating new ones, thereby escalating the extent and impacts of invaders. Invasions have complex and often immense long‐term direct and indirect impacts. In many cases, such impacts become apparent or problematic only when invaders are well established and have large ranges. Invasive alien species break down biogeographic realms, affect native species richness and abundance, increase the risk of native species extinction, affect the genetic composition of native populations, change native animal behaviour, alter phylogenetic diversity across communities, and modify trophic networks. Many invasive alien species also change ecosystem functioning and the delivery of ecosystem services by altering nutrient and contaminant cycling, hydrology, habitat structure, and disturbance regimes. These biodiversity and ecosystem impacts are accelerating and will increase further in the future. Scientific evidence has identified policy strategies to reduce future invasions, but these strategies are often insufficiently implemented. For some nations, notably Australia and New Zealand, biosecurity has become a national priority. There have been long‐term successes, such as eradication of rats and cats on increasingly large islands and biological control of weeds across continental areas. However, in many countries, invasions receive little attention. Improved international cooperation is crucial to reduce the impacts of invasive alien species on biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human livelihoods. Countries can strengthen their biosecurity regulations to implement and enforce more effective management strategies that should also address other global changes that interact with invasions.

The accelerating rates of international trade, travel, and transport in the latter half of the twentieth century have led to the progressive mixing of biota from across the world and the number of species introduced to new regions continues to increase. The importance of biogeographic, climatic, economic, and demographic factors as drivers of this trend is increasingly being realized but as yet there is no consensus regarding their relative importance. Whereas little may be done to mitigate the effects of geography and climate on invasions, a wider range of options may exist to moderate the impacts of economic and demographic drivers. Here we use the most recent data available from Europe to partition between macroecological, economic, and demographic variables the variation in alien species richness of bryophytes, fungi, vascular plants, terrestrial insects, aquatic invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Only national wealth and human population density were statistically significant predictors in the majority of models when analyzed jointly with climate, geography, and land cover. The economic and demographic variables reflect the intensity of human activities and integrate the effect of factors that directly determine the outcome of invasion such as propagule pressure, pathways of introduction, eutrophication, and the intensity of anthropogenic disturbance. The strong influence of economic and demographic variables on the levels of invasion by alien species demonstrates that future solutions to the problem of biological invasions at a national scale lie in mitigating the negative environmental consequences of human activities that generate wealth and by promoting more sustainable population growth.climate | economy | exotic plants and animals | geography | prediction

Globalization and economic growth are widely recognized as important drivers of biological invasions. Consequently, there is an increasing need for governments to address the role of international trade in their strategies to prevent species introductions. However, many of the most problematic alien species are not recent arrivals but were introduced several decades ago. Hence, current patterns of alien-species richness may better reflect historical rather than contemporary human activities, a phenomenon which might be called "invasion debt." Here, we show that across 10 taxonomic groups (vascular plants, bryophytes, fungi, birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, fish, terrestrial insects, and aquatic invertebrates) in 28 European countries, current numbers of alien species established in the wild are indeed more closely related to indicators of socioeconomic activity from the year 1900 than to those from 2000, although the majority of species introductions occurred during the second half of the 20th century. The strength of the historical signal varies among taxonomic groups, with those possessing good capabilities for dispersal (birds, insects) more strongly associated with recent socioeconomic drivers. Nevertheless, our results suggest a considerable historical legacy for the majority of the taxa analyzed. The consequences of the current high levels of socioeconomic activity on the extent of biological invasions will thus probably not be completely realized until several decades into the future.exotic plants and animals | species establishment | time lag

Human-mediated transport beyond biogeographic barriers has led to the introduction and 73The transport of species across biogeographic barriers by humans is a key component of 74 global environmental change [1][2][3] . Some of the species introduced to new regions will establish 75 self-sustaining populations and, thus, become a persistent part of the local biota 95We expect regions with higher gross domestic product per capita (GDPpc) or with higher 96 population densities to receive more alien species introductions across taxa (i.e., to experience 97 higher colonisation pressure through trade and transport), resulting in higher EAS richness 7,8,10,21 . 98We also test whether EAS richness patterns follow the latitudinal gradients often observed for 99 native biota, with higher richness in regions with higher mean annual temperature and 100 precipitation 22,23 . We expect island regions to have higher EAS richness than mainland regions, 101as islands are thought to be more prone to the establishment of alien species 12,24,25 . In addition, 102we expect more isolated oceanic islands to have greater EAS richness, as they have been shown 103 to receive more introductions, at least for birds 9 . We also expect coastal regions (as points of human population density, with a weak trend of higher alien richness in wetter regions (Table 1). 125While we only have potential proxy data (GDPpc, population density) for colonisation pressure 126 here (i.e., the total numbers of species introduced) 26 , our results suggest that cumulative numbers 127 7 of EAS are driven to a greater extent by differences in area and the pressure of introductions 128 from human history and activity 1,3,5,12,21 than by climate. 129Island regions have on average higher cross-taxon EAS richness (mean ± 1 S.D. 130proportional cross-taxon richness = 0.17 ± 0.11) than mainland regions (mean ± 1 S.D. = 0.11 ± 131 0.07; Table 1). In addition, models explaining alien richness of island and mainland regions 132 separately reveal that EAS richness is more strongly related to area, GDPpc and population 133 density on islands than in mainland regions (Table 1) (Table 1). Among mainland regions, EAS richness is greater for coastal (mean ± 1 S.D. 139proportional cross-taxon richness = 0.13 ± 0.09) than for landlocked regions (mean ± 1 S.D. = 140 0.10 ± 0.04). Cross-taxon EAS richness on islands tends to be higher for those further from 141 continental landmasses (Table 1). 143 Taxonomic congruence 144The strongest correlations in alien richness between taxonomic groups exist for ants and 145 reptiles (r s = 0.62), followed by birds and mammals, and vascular plants and spiders (both r s = 146 0.55) ( Table 2). For ants and reptiles, EAS richness is high in the Hawaiian Islands, southern 147United States (especially Florida) and Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands (Fig. 1b, 1g). (Fig. 1f, 1h). In Europe, the United Kingdom has the highest established alien 154 plant richness, while Germany has the highest spider richness (Fig. 1h, 1h). Overa...