This review describes the synthesis, properties, and, in particular, biomedical and pharmaceutical applications of an upcoming class of polymeric networks and assemblies based on cyclodextrins (CDs). CDs are cyclic oligosaccharides composed of alpha-1,4-coupled d-glucose units, which contain a hydrophobic internal cavity that can act as a host for various, generally lipophilic, guest molecules. Because of this unique physicochemical property, commonly referred to as inclusion complex formation, CDs have often been used to design polymeric materials, such as hydrogels and nanoparticles. Polymeric systems based on CDs exhibit unique characteristics in terms of mechanical properties, stimuli-responsiveness, and drug release characteristics. In this contribution, first, an outline is given of covalently cross-linked polymeric networks in which CD moieties were structurally incorporated to modulate the network strength as well as the complexation and release of low molecular weight drugs. Second, physically assembled polymeric systems are discussed, of which the formation is accomplished by inclusion complexes between polymer-conjugated CDs and various guest molecule-derivatized polymers. Due to their physical nature, these polymeric systems are sensitive to external stimuli, such as temperature changes, shear forces and the presence of competing CD-binding molecules, which can be exploited to use these systems as injectable, in situ gelling devices. In recent years, many interesting CD-containing polymeric systems have been described in literature. These systems have to be optimized and extensively evaluated in preclinical studies concerning their safety and efficacy, making future clinical applications of these materials in the biomedical and pharmaceutical field feasible.

A novel self-assembling poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel system based on inclusion complexes between β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and cholesterol is described. Hydrogels are formed after hydration of a mixture of star-shaped 8-arm poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) end-modified with β-CD groups and the same star-shaped PEG end-modified with cholesterol moieties. Rheological analysis as well as 2D-NMR spectroscopy demonstrated that the obtained gels are due to formation of β-CD/cholesterol inclusion complexes. As also observed by rheology, the hydrogels are fully thermoreversible upon repetitive heating and cooling steps. Hydrogel properties were dependent on polymer concentration, the β-CD/cholesterol stoichiometry, and the molecular weight of the starshaped PEG. Because of their assumed biocompatibility and expected physiological clearance, hydrogels based on star-shaped PEG and β-CD/cholesterol inclusion complexes offer excellent opportunities as drug delivery matrices and for other pharmaceutical and biomedical applications.

This paper reports on the degradation and protein release behavior of a self‐assembled hydrogel system composed of β‐cyclodextrin‐ (βCD) and cholesterol‐derivatized 8‐arm star‐shaped poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG8). By mixing βCD‐ and cholesterol‐derivatized PEG8 (molecular weights 10, 20 and 40 kDa) in aqueous solution, hydrogels with different rheological properties are formed. It is shown that hydrogel degradation is mainly the result of surface erosion, which depends on the network swelling stresses and initial crosslink density of the gels. This degradation mechanism, which is hardly observed for other water‐absorbing polymer networks, leads to a quantitative and nearly zero‐order release of entrapped proteins. This system therefore offers great potential for protein delivery.

The rheological properties of a recently developed self-assembling hydrogel system composed of beta-cyclodextrin (betaCD)- and cholesterol-derivatized 8-arm star-shaped poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG8) were investigated. To understand and predict the gel rheological properties, data fitting with the Maxwell model as well as comparing the system's concentration-dependent behavior with Cates' model for reversibly breaking chains were performed. To investigate the influence of the polymer architecture, networks were also prepared by replacing the cholesterol-derivatized 8-arm star-shaped PEG by linear bifunctional PEG-cholesterol or by using 4-arm instead of 8-arm polymers. Rheological analysis showed that the 8-arm polymer-based mixtures yielded tight viscoelastic networks, but their storage and loss moduli significantly deviated from those predicted by the Maxwell model. The scaling of the plateau moduli, relaxation times, and zero-shear viscosities with concentration for gels composed of 8-arm cholesterol- and betaCD-derivatized PEG followed a power law with exponents higher than predicted by Cates' model. On the other hand, hydrogels in which linear bifunctional PEG-cholesterol was used instead of 8-arm star-shaped PEG-cholesterol or which were based on 4-arm polymers showed a substantially better fit with the Maxwell model and reduced differences between empirical and Cates' theoretical scaling exponents. Rheological analysis also showed that the hydrogels were thermoreversible. At low temperatures, the gels showed viscoelastic behavior due to slow overall relaxation of the polymer chains. At higher temperatures, however, a reduced number of betaCD/cholesterol complexes and concomitant faster chain relaxation processes eventually led to liquid-like behavior. The relationship between temperature and the relaxation time was used to determine an activation energy of 46 kJ/mol for breaking and reptation of the polymers.

We tested several histamine H 1 receptor (H 1 R) agonists and antagonists for their differences in binding affinities between human and guinea pig H 1 Rs transiently expressed in African green monkey kidney (COS-7) cells. Especially, the bivalent agonist histaprodifen-histamine dimer (HP-HA) shows a higher affinity for guinea pig than for human H 1 Rs. Based on the structure of HP-HA, we have further identified VUF 4669 [7-(3-(4-(hydroxydiphenylmethyl)piperidin-1-yl)propoxy)-4-oxochroman-2-carboxylic acid] as a guinea pig-preferring H 1 R antagonist, demonstrating that the concept of species selectivity is not limited to agonists. To delineate the molecular mechanisms behind the observed species selectivity, we have created mutant human H 1 Rs in which amino acids were individually replaced by their guinea pig H 1 R counterparts. Residue Asn 84 (2.61) in transmembrane domain (TM) 2 seemed to act as a selectivity switch in the H 1 R. Molecular modeling and sitedirected mutagenesis studies suggest that Asn 84 interacts with the conserved Tyr 458 (7.43) in TM7. Our data provide the first evidence that for some H 1 R ligands, the binding pocket is not only limited to TMs 3, 4, 5, and 6 but also comprises an additional pocket formed by TMs 2 and 7.