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The purpose of this article is to examine the contribution made by the selfefficacy component of Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory to the study of self-regulation and motivation in academic settings. The difference between self-efficacy beliefs and other expectancy constructs is first explained, fol lowed by a brief overview of problems in self-efficacy research. Findings on the relationship between self-efficacy, motivation constructs, and academic performances are then summarized. These findings demonstrate that particu larized measures of self-efficacy that correspond to the criterial tasks with which they are compared surpass global measures in the explanation and prediction of related outcomes. The conceptual difference between the defi nition and use of expectancy beliefs in social cognitive theory and in expect ancy value and self-concept theory is then clarified. Last, strategies to guide future research are offered.In Social Foundations of Thought and Action, Albert Bandura (1986) wrote that individuals possess a self system that enables them to exercise a measure of control over their thoughts, feelings, and actions. This self system houses one's cognitive and affective structures and includes the abilities to symbolize, learn from others, plan alternative strategies, regulate one's own behavior, and engage in self-reflection. It also plays a prominent role in providing reference mechanisms and a set of subfunctions for perceiving, regulating, and evaluating behavior, which results from the interplay between the self system and externalenvironmental sources of influence. As such, the self system serves a selfregulatory function by providing individuals with the capability to alter their environments and influence their own actions. In all, Bandura painted a portrait of human behavior and motivation in which the beliefs that people have about themselves are key elements in the exercise of control and personal agency.According to Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory, self-referent thought mediates between knowledge and action, and through self-reflection individuals evaluate their own experiences and thought processes. Knowledge, skill, and prior attainments are often poor predictors of subsequent attainments because the beliefs that individuals hold about their abilities and about the outcome of their efforts powerfully influence the ways in which they will behave. This view is consistent with that of theorists who have argued that the potent nature of beliefs Different sections of this article formed the basis for an invited address and two papers presented at symposia conducted at Annual Problems in Research on Perceived CompetenceAs noted earlier, research findings have generally supported the contentions of social cognitive theory as regards the role of self-efficacy. Findings have also been successful in supporting the contentions of other expectancy theories. It is, of course, in keeping with the predictive nature of normal science that most theoretical contentions receive support when o...

Path analysis was used to test the predictive and mediational role of self-efficacy beliefs in mathematical problem solving. Results revealed that math self-efficacy was more predictive of problem solving than was math self-concept, perceived usefulness of mathematics, prior experience with mathematics, or gender (N = 350). Self-efficacy also mediated the effect of gender and prior experience on self-concept, perceived usefulness, and problem solving. Gender and prior experience influenced self-concept, perceived usefulness, and problem solving largely through the mediational role of self-efficacy. Men had higher performance, self-efficacy, and self-concept and lower anxiety, but these differences were due largely to the influence of self-efficacy, for gender had a direct effect only on self-efficacy and a prior experience variable. Results support the hypothesized role of self-efficacy in A. Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory.Social cognitive theory suggests that self-efficacy, "people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances" (Bandura, 1986, p. 391), strongly influences the choices people make, the effort they expend, and how long they persevere in the face of challenge. According to Bandura (1986), how people behave can often be better predicted by their beliefs about their capabilities than by what they are actually capable of accomplishing, for these beliefs help determine what individuals do with the knowledge and skills they have.Although researchers have established that self-efficacy is a strong predictor of behavior (Maddux, Norton, & Stoltenberg, 1986), research on the relationship between self-efficacy and academic performance in areas such as mathematics is still limited (Bouffard-Bouchard, 1989). Studies of math self-efficacy have been largely correlational, and researchers have emphasized the need to construct causal models with which to conceptualize and test hypothesized relationships (Hackett & Betz, 1989;Meece, Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990). When causal modeling has been used, most models have excluded key variables identified as influencing math performance (most notably, self-concept), or the theoretical framework used to hypothesize relationships was not based on social cognitive theory. Thus, results have added little to a better understanding of self-efficacy's influence. Bandura (1986) mance; that is, when these determinants are controlled, self-efficacy judgments are better predictors of performance. Bandura also argued that constructs such as selfconcept, perceived usefulness, and anxiety are "common mechanisms" of personal agency in the sense that they, like self-efficacy beliefs, also influence an outcome. However, these mechanisms are, to a great extent, the result of selfefficacy judgments-their influence is largely due to the confidence with which individuals approach a task. Consequently, although strong correlational relationships are observed between these mechanisms and related outcomes, ...

The purpose of this review was threefold. First, the theorized sources of self-efficacy beliefs proposed by A. Bandura (1986) are described and explained, including how they are typically assessed and analyzed. Second, findings from investigations of these sources in academic contexts are reviewed and critiqued, and problems and oversights in current research and in conceptualizations of the sources are identified. Although mastery experience is typically the most influential source of self-efficacy, the strength and influence of the sources differ as a function of contextual factors such as gender, ethnicity, academic ability, and academic domain. Finally, suggestions are offered to help guide researchers investigating the psychological mechanisms at work in the formation of self-efficacy beliefs in academic contexts.

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