Aim To examine historical connections between rain forest habitats in the Neotropics based on the evolutionary history of the arboreal pit viper Bothrops bilineatus. Location Amazonia and Atlantic Forest in South America. Methods We inferred phylogenetic relationships within Bothrops and phylogeographic relationships within B. bilineatus using both concatenated and species tree approaches under a Bayesian framework based on four mitochondrial and five nuclear genes. We inferred demographic history within B. bilineatus based on tests of alternative historical scenarios using coalescent simulations and Approximate Bayesian Computation. Results Phylogenetic analyses recovered four major clades within Bothrops bilineatus. The best‐fit historical scenario involved colonization of the Atlantic Forest by an Amazonian ancestor around 2 Mya, followed by range expansion in the Atlantic Forest. Subsequently, there was a colonization event into the Guiana Shield from an Atlantic Forest ancestor, dating back to around 0.3 Mya. Main conclusion The complex demographic history of Bothrops bilineatus shows multiple connection events between Amazonia and the Atlantic Forest in the last 2 million years. Two previously hypothesized forest bridges, southern and northeastern, may have been involved in range expansions in this species. These results shed light on the historical processes involved in the diversification of this venomous South American snake, providing information about the historical dynamism of forested habitats in the Neotropics.

The South American and West Indian Casque‐headed Treefrogs (Hylidae: Hylinae: Lophyohylini) include 85 species. These are notably diverse in morphology (e.g. disparate levels of cranial hyperossification) and life history (e.g. different reproductive modes, chemical defences), have a wide distribution, and occupy habitats from the tropical rainforests to semiarid scrubland. In this paper, we present a phylogenetic analysis of this hylid tribe based on sequence fragments of up to five mitochondrial (12S, 16S, ND1, COI, Cytb) and six nuclear genes (POMC, RAG‐1, RHOD, SIAH, TNS3, TYR). We included most of its species (> 96%), in addition to a number of new species. Our results indicate: (i) the paraphyly of Trachycephalus with respect to Aparasphenodon venezolanus; (ii) the nonmonophyly of Aparasphenodon, with Argenteohyla siemersi, Corythomantis galeata and Nyctimantis rugiceps nested within it, and Ap. venezolanus nested within Trachycephalus; (iii) the polyphyly of Corythomantis; (iv) the nonmonophyly of the recognized species groups of Phyllodytes; and (v) a pervasive low support for the deep relationships among the major clades of Lophyohylini, including C. greeningi and the monotypic genera Itapotihyla and Phytotriades. To remedy the nonmonophyly of Aparasphenodon, Corythomantis, and Trachycephalus, we redefined Nyctimantis to include Aparasphenodon (with the exception of Ap. venezolanus, which we transferred to Trachycephalus), Argenteohyla, and C. galeata. Additionally, our results indicate the need for taxonomic work in the following clades: (i) Trachycephalus dibernardoi and Tr. imitatrix; (ii) Tr. atlas, Tr. mambaiensis and Tr. nigromaculatus; and (iii) Phyllodytes. On the basis of our phylogenetic results, we analyzed the evolution of skull hyperossification and reproductive biology, with emphasis on the multiple independent origins of phytotelm breeding, in the context of Anura. We also analyzed the inter‐related aspects of chemical defences, venom delivery, phragmotic behaviour, co‐ossification, and prevention of evaporative water loss.

Aim To investigate (a) historical biogeographical connections and species interchange among rain forest habitats and (b) the role of riverine barriers on population divergence and speciation in the Neotropical region. Location Amazonia and Atlantic Forest in South America. Taxon Bothrops jararacussu species group (Serpentes: Viperidae). Methods We inferred phylogenetic relationships within Bothrops with an emphasis on the jararacussu species group under a Bayesian framework based on six molecular loci. We also used genetic coalescent simulations and approximate Bayesian computation to infer historical demography within the jararacussu group based on tests of alternative scenarios. Results We found the jararacussu species group to be monophyletic. The Atlantic Forest species B. pirajai and B. muriciensis were inferred nested within this group, closely related to B. jararacussu, confirming that Atlantic Forest species form a clade. The historical demographic analyses support vicariant separation between populations of B. brazili north and south of the Amazon River during the Miocene–Pliocene border, as well as colonization of the Atlantic Forest by a northern Amazonian ancestor in the Pleistocene. Main Conclusion The evolutionary history of the jararacussu species group sheds light on the dynamism of Neotropical rain forests over time, with at least one event of forest expansion leading to faunal interchange between Amazonian and Atlantic forests in the Pleistocene. Moreover, tests of alternative demographic scenarios suggest that the populations of B. brazili from north and south of the Amazon River originated from a vicariant event during the Miocene–Pliocene border, in agreement with the proposed age of establishment of the modern Amazon River drainage. Our results also have taxonomic implications for these medically important venomous snakes, supporting unrecognized diversity at the species level.

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Leposoma sinepollex sp. nov., a new species of the scincoides group, is described from a mountain region in the Atlantic Forest central corridor in state of Bahia, Brazil. The new species is characterized by elongate dorsal and lanceolate ventral scales arranged in diagonal rows, a single and smooth frontonasal, five supraoculars, absence of pollex, third toe as long as or longer than fourth, absence of striations in lower part of head, parietals longer than wide and as long as interparietal, 27–29 dorsals, 25–29 scales around body, 17–19 ventrals, 12–14 total pores in the male (absent in females), 9–10 and 9–11 subdigital lamellae respectively under IV Finger and IV Toe, and strong sexual color dichromatism with a black pigmentation in the ventral parts of males, creamy in females. The new species is morphologically similar to Leposoma nanodactylus, sharing with it among other features the synapomorphic division of the first supraocular. Phylogenetic analyses of 981 bp of combined sequences (cyt b+ ND4) recovered also a strongly supported (PP=1,0; BP=100) sister relationship between both species. The new species and Leposoma nanodactylus are placed sister to all the other Atlantic Forest species, with L. baturitensis being the first to diverge in this radiation. We discuss the distribution of the Atlantic Forest Leposoma, as well as possible scenarios for the origin of the new species.

More than a century after its discovery by Ernest Garbe, and almost 80 years after its original description, we obtained a series of specimens of the earless gymnophthalmid Anotosaura collaris, the type species of the genus, up to now known only by a single specimen. On the basis of the material obtained at and close to the type locality we redescribe the species, adding information about the external and hemipenial morphology, osteology and karytoype. Molecular data confirm its sister relationship with Anotosaura vanzolinia as well as the close relationship of Anotosaura with the Ecpleopodini Colobosauroides and Dryadosaura. We supplement this information with thermophysiological, ecogeographical, karyotypic and ecological data.

Gymnophthalmus represents a challenging group for systematics of microteiid lizards. Due to scarcity of exemplars and molecular data, the taxonomy of the genus has been unstable, and six of its eight species are considered part of a poorly-delimited complex of unisexual and bisexual species. Unnamed populations of red-tailed Gymnophthalmus from savanna enclaves in Amazon, similar to G. vanzoi but with differences in color pattern, have been noted in the literature. Here, we used molecular and morphological data to test the taxonomic status of the Central Amazonian red-tailed Gymnophthalmus (G. sp.). Our molecular analysis recovered a close relationship between G. vanzoi and G. sp. from Central Amazon, with minimal divergence. Samples were similar in scale counts but presented significant variation in color pattern and morphometry. Despite the geographic isolation, individuals of both populations cannot be fully differentiated based on morphology. Thus, our results suggest that G. vanzoi has a wider distribution, including the Central Amazonian red-tailed Gymnophthalmus and likely morphologically similar populations from other enclaves of Amazonian savannas, which may have been isolated recently. Based on our comparative analysis, we highlight some characters proved useful for differentiating Brazilian Gymnophthalmus and discuss some prospects for the taxonomy of the genus.

The Cercosaurini tribe stands out from other Gymnophthalmidae lizards for including several species with morphological adaptations to aquatic lifestyle (“Crocodile‐Like Morphology” – CLM). Recent molecular phylogenies of Cercosaurini demonstrated the paraphyly of CLM species, implicitly suggesting that adaptations to the aquatic life evolved more than once. However, CLM species have remained poorly sampled, and a number of uncertainties persist, such as the monophyly of Neusticurus and the placement of Potamites apodemus within the tribe. Based on a more extensive molecular and morphological data set, we propose a phylogenetic hypothesis for Neusticurus and investigate, for the first time, the phylogenetic position of P. apodemus. We recovered a monophyletic Neusticurus clade; however, Neusticurus rudis as currently understood was recovered as paraphyletic, with two lineages that also show consistent morphological diagnosis; as a result, we resurrect and provide a taxonomic redescription of Neusticurus surinamensis Müller, . Moreover, because P. apodemus was recovered as sister to all other Echinosaura, we propose a new combination for this species (Echinosaura apodema). We also review the distribution of Neusticurus species, offering a comprehensive view of their biogeography. Lastly, our ancestral character reconstruction and dating analyses indicate that the CLM phenotype evolved four times independently during Cercosaurini′s evolutionary history. We hypothesize that the CLM phenotype and subsequent adaptation to aquatic life may be linked to the development of the Pebas Lake in western Amazonia during the Miocene.