We find that international trade has an economically significant and statistically robust positive effect on productivity. Our trade measure is imports plus exports relative to purchasing power parity GDP (real openness), which we argue is preferable on theoretical grounds to the nominal measure conventionally used. We also find a significantly positive aggregate scale effect. Our estimates control for proxies of institutional quality as well as geography and take into account the endogeneity of trade and institutional quality. Our analysis of the channels through which trade and scale affect productivity yields that they work through total factor productivity.* We thank Tito Cordella, Luis Cubeddu, and Walter Garcia-Fontes for help with the data, José Garcia-Montalvo and Marek Jarocinski for their econometric expertise, Rita Almeida, Pablo Fleiss, and Israel Sancho for excellent research assistance, and David Romer for kindly providing the data and programs used in Frankel and Romer [1999]. The paper has benefited from the comments of editors, anonymous referees, and other colleagues. Downloaded from2. The monotonic relationship between specialization and real openness combined with the effect of specialization on the price of nontradable goods in (2) implies that the price level should be increasing in real openness (trade-related Balassa-Samuelson effect). We present empirical evidence for this relationship in the Appendix. Downloaded from FIGURE II Moreira [2003] 95 Percent Confidence Ellipsoids for the Effect of Real Opennessand Institutional Quality on Productivity ROpen denotes real openness, and IQual denotes our proxy of institutional quality (see Section IV for details on these variables). The clouds consist of all combinations of the effect of trade and institutions on productivity that are not significantly different at the 5 percent level from the TSLS estimates. The results are generated using Ox version 3.30.

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Abstract:The atmospheric bulk deposition rate of chloride in continental Spain was studied to get basic information in order to help in the evaluation of diffuse recharge to aquifers through an environmental chemical balance. Both new, recent data and bibliographic data have been used. Most sampling records are less than 5 years long and often only 1 year long. This means that the calculated mean yearly bulk deposition rate of chloride is quite uncertain by 30% on average, and larger than the values derived form records up to 15 years long. A map of atmospheric bulk deposition of chloride has been drawn using ordinary kriging. The mean bulk deposition rate of chloride varies from 1 to 30 g m 2 year 1 in coastal areas, with strong negative landward gradients between 0Ð1 and 1 g m 2 year 1 km 1 . In the centre of the Iberian Peninsula, chloride deposition rates vary from 0Ð2 to 0Ð5 g m 2 year 1 , with gradients around or less than 5 ð 10 3 g m 2 year 1 km 1 . The coefficient of variation of the mean bulk atmospheric deposition rate of chloride, for any place, ranges from 0Ð1 to 1. Values larger than ¾0Ð5 are not a good indicator of natural uncertainty for this series of data that has a skewed distribution. The map of bulk deposition rate and its error is one of the terms needed for aquifer recharge estimation by means of the chloride ion balance.

The atmospheric chloride mass balance (CMB) method allows spatial evaluations of the average diffuse aquifer recharge by rainfall (trueR¯) in large and varied territories when long‐term steady conditions can be assumed. Often, the distributed average CMB variables necessary to calculate trueR¯ have to be estimated from the available variable‐length data series, which may be of suboptimal quality and spatial coverage. This paper explains the use of these data and the reliability of the results in continental Spain, chosen as a large and varied territory. The CMB variables have been regionalized by ordinary kriging at the same 4976 nodes of a 10 km × 10 km grid. Nodal trueR¯ values vary from 14 to 810 mm year–1, 90% ranging from 30 to 300 mm year–1. The recharge‐to‐precipitation ratios vary from 0.03 in low‐permeability formations and semiarid areas to 0.65 in some carbonate massifs. Integrated average results for the whole of continental Spain yield a potential aquifer recharge of 64 km3 year−1, the net recharge over permeable formations (40% of the territory) being 32 km3 year−1. Two main sources of uncertainty affecting trueR¯ (given by the coefficient of variation, CV), induced by the inherent natural variability of the variables (CVR) and from mapping (CVRK), have been segregated. The average CVR is 0.13 and could be improved with longer data series. The average CVRK is 0.07 and may be decreased with better data coverage. The trueR¯ estimates were compared with other regional and local recharge estimates, trueR¯ being 4% and 1% higher, respectively. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In the high-permeability, semiarid carbonate aquifer in the Sierra de Gádor Mountains (southeastern Spain), some local springs draining shallow perched aquifers were of assistance in assessing applicability of the atmospheric chloride mass balance (CMB) for quantifying total yearly recharge (R T) by rainfall. Two contrasting hydrological years (October through September) were selected to evaluate the influence of climate on recharge: the average rainfall year 2003–2004, and the unusually dry 2004–2005. Results at small catchment scale were calibrated with estimated daily stand-scale R T obtained by means of a soil water balance (SWB) of rainfall, using the actual evapotranspiration measured by the eddy covariance (EC) technique. R T ranged from 0.35 to 0.40 of rainfall in the year, with less than a 5% difference between the CMB and SWB methods in 2003–2004. R T varied from less than 0.05 of rainfall at mid-elevation to 0.20 at high elevation in 2004–2005, with a similar difference between the methods. Diffuse recharge (R D) by rainfall was quantified from daily soil water content field data to split R T into R D and the expected concentrated recharge (R C) at catchment scale in both hydrological years. R D was 0.16 of rainfall in 2003–2004 and 0.01 in 2004–2005. Under common 1- to 3-day rainfall events, the hydraulic effect of R D is delayed from 1 day to 1 week, while R C is not delayed. This study shows that the CMB method is a suitable tool for yearly values complementing and extending the more widely used SWB in ungauged mountain carbonate aquifers with negligible runoff. The slight difference between R T rates at small catchment and stand scales enables results to be validated and provides new estimates to parameterize R T with rainfall depth after checking the weight of diffuse and concentrated mechanisms on R T during moderate rainfall periods and episodes of marked climatic aridity.Peer ReviewedPostprint (published version

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