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A plethora of research demonstrates that the processing of emotional faces is prioritised over non-emotive stimuli when cognitive resources are limited (this is known as ‘emotional superiority’). However, there is debate as to whether competition for processing resources results in emotional superiority per se, or more specifically, threat superiority. Therefore, to investigate prioritisation of emotional stimuli for storage in visual short-term memory (VSTM), we devised an original VSTM report procedure using schematic (angry, happy, neutral) faces in which processing competition was manipulated. In Experiment 1, display exposure time was manipulated to create competition between stimuli. Participants (n = 20) had to recall a probed stimulus from a set size of four under high (150 ms array exposure duration) and low (400 ms array exposure duration) perceptual processing competition. For the high competition condition (i.e. 150 ms exposure), results revealed an emotional superiority effect per se. In Experiment 2 (n = 20), we increased competition by manipulating set size (three versus five stimuli), whilst maintaining a constrained array exposure duration of 150 ms. Here, for the five-stimulus set size (i.e. maximal competition) only threat superiority emerged. These findings demonstrate attentional prioritisation for storage in VSTM for emotional faces. We argue that task demands modulated the availability of processing resources and consequently the relative magnitude of the emotional/threat superiority effect, with only threatening stimuli prioritised for storage in VSTM under more demanding processing conditions. Our results are discussed in light of models and theories of visual selection, and not only combine the two strands of research (i.e. visual selection and emotion), but highlight a critical factor in the processing of emotional stimuli is availability of processing resources, which is further constrained by task demands.

The best format in which information that has to be recalled is presented has been investigated in several studies, which focused on the impact of bimodal stimulation on working memory performance. An enhancement of participant's performance in terms of correct recall has been repeatedly found, when bimodal formats of presentation (i.e., audiovisual) were compared to unimodal formats (i.e, either visual or auditory), in providing implications for multimedial learning. Several theoretical frameworks have been suggested in order to account for the bimodal advantage, ranging from those emphasizing early stages of processing (such as automatic alerting effects or multisensory integration processes) to those centred on late stages of processing (as postulated by the dual coding theory). The aim of this paper is to review previous contributions to this topic, providing a comprehensive theoretical framework, which is updated by the latest empirical studies.

Previous studies conducted on adults and children found that closing the eyes while recalling an event increased memory accuracy for both free and cued recall. One possible explanation to this phenomenon is that eye closure increases the amount of cognitive resources devoted to the task reducing external stimulation, but it is still not clear whether the beneficial effect is only due to a better focus on the task or to a better encoding of the material leading to an advantage over time. In this study, we evaluated the effect of eye closure instruction on children memory accuracy for a short clip in an immediate and delayed recall. We observed that asking participants to close their eyes while performing a memory task helped them to remember more details and that this effect persisted after a time delay. © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 21, 803-814, 1995). We translated the 24 critical lures from 24 English DRM lists and created semantically associated Italian word lists that were then normed with native Italian speakers. Overall, the participants recalled 63 % of the list items and 22 % of the critical lures with the word lists developed. In addition, 56 % of the list items and 82 % of the critical lures were recognized by the participants. The present study provides a set of Italian lists that can be used by researchers interested in evaluating false memories in Italian-speaking participants.

Norms for an Italian translation of the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (HGSHS:A) by Shor and Orne (1962) are presented. Subjects recruited from 1986 to 1989 were pooled, resulting in a sample of 376 participants (297 women and 79 men). The normative data were generally congruent with earlier normative studies in score distribution, item difficulty levels, and reliability. Women had significantly higher hypnotizability scores and item pass rates than men. The reliability scores of the Italian adaptation of the HGSHS:A were the same as a previously reported Danish sample and higher than a German sample, but lower than those of the Australian, Canadian, and original American samples. These results suggest that the Italian version of the HGSHS:A is an efficient tool for initial hypnotizability screening in an Italian context.

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