Objective:The objective was to establish a systematic framework for measuring and understanding cognitive distraction in the automobile.Background: Driver distraction from secondary in-vehicle activities is increasingly recognized as a significant source of injuries and fatalities on the roadway.Method: Across three studies, participants completed eight in-vehicle tasks commonly performed by the driver of an automobile. Primary, secondary, subjective, and physiological measures were collected and integrated into a cognitive distraction scale.Results: In-vehicle activities, such as listening to the radio or an audio book, were associated with a low level of cognitive workload; the conversation activities of talking to a passenger in the vehicle or conversing with a friend on a handheld or hands-free cell phone were associated with a moderate level of cognitive workload; and using a speech-to-text interfaced e-mail system involved a high level of cognitive workload.Conclusion: The research established that there are significant impairments to driving that stem from the diversion of attention from the task of operating a motor vehicle and that the impairments to driving are directly related to the cognitive workload of these in-vehicle activities. Moreover, the adoption of voicebased systems in the vehicle may have unintended consequences that adversely affect traffic safety.Application: These findings can be used to help inform scientifically based policies on driver distraction, particularly as they relate to cognitive distraction stemming from the diversion of attention to other concurrent activities in the vehicle.

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Objective: The present research compared and contrasted the workload associated with using in-vehicle information systems commonly available in five different automotive original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) with that of CarPlay and Android Auto when used in the same vehicles. Background: A growing trend is to provide access to portable smartphone-based systems (e.g., CarPlay and Android Auto) that support an expansion of various in-vehicle infotainment system features and functions. Method/Results: The study involved on-road testing of 24 participants in each configuration of five vehicles crossed with the three different infotainment systems: the embedded portion of the native OEM systems, CarPlay, and Android Auto. Our analysis found that workload was significantly greater for the embedded portion of the native OEM systems than for CarPlay and Android Auto. The strengths and weaknesses of each CarPlay and Android Auto traded off in such a way that the overall demand associated with using the two systems did not differ. Conclusion: CarPlay and Android Auto provided more functionality and resulted in lower levels of workload than the embedded portion of the native OEM infotainment systems. Application: Potential applications of this research include refinements to CarPlay and Android Auto to address variations in workload as a function of task type, the modality of interaction, and OEM implementation of the system.

Multitasking diminishes the self-awareness of performance that is often essential for self-regulation and selfknowledge. Participants drove in a simulator while either talking or not talking on a hands-free cell phone. Following previous research, participants who talked on a cell phone made more serious driving errors than control participants who did not use a phone while driving. Control participants' assessments of the safeness of their driving and general ability to drive safely while distracted were negatively correlated with the actual number of errors made when they were driving. By contrast, cell-phone participants' assessments of the safeness of their driving and confidence in their driving abilities were uncorrelated with their actual errors. Thus, talking on a cell phone not only diminished the safeness of participants' driving, it diminished their awareness of the safeness of their driving.

The introduction of semi-automated driving systems is expected to mitigate the safety consequences of human error. Observational findings suggest that relinquishing control of vehicle operational control to assistance systems might diminish driver engagement in the driving task, by reducing levels of arousal. In this study, drivers drove a Tesla Model S with Autopilot in both semi-automated and manual modes. Driver behavior was monitored using a combination of physiological and behavioral measures. Compared to manual driving, a reduction in driver physiological activation was observed during semi-automated driving. Also, performance to the peripheral detection task suffered in semi-automated mode, with slower response times recorded in this condition than during manual driving. Taken together, our data suggest that semiautomated driving might not ease safety consequences of human error. Instead, these findings suggest it might cause a drop in driver monitoring, possibly followed by a spike in automation-generated distraction.