No abstract

Brachydactyly type A1 (BDA1) was the first recorded disorder of the autosomal dominant Mendelian trait in humans, characterized by shortened or absent middle phalanges in digits. It is associated with heterozygous missense mutations in indian hedgehog (IHH). Hedgehog proteins are important morphogens for a wide range of developmental processes. The capacity and range of signalling is thought to be regulated by its interaction with the receptor PTCH1 and antagonist HIP1. Here we show that a BDA1 mutation (E95K) in Ihh impairs the interaction of IHH with PTCH1 and HIP1. This is consistent with a recent paper showing that BDA1 mutations cluster in a calcium-binding site essential for the interaction with its receptor and cell-surface partners. Furthermore, we show that in a mouse model that recapitulates the E95K mutation, there is a change in the potency and range of signalling. The mice have digit abnormalities consistent with the human disorder.

Elongation of the digit rays resulting in the formation of a defined number of phalanges is a process poorly understood in mammals, whereas in the chicken distal mesenchymal bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling in the so-called phalanx-forming region (PFR) or digit crescent (DC) seems to be involved. The human brachydactylies (BDs) are inheritable conditions characterized by variable degrees of digit shortening, thus providing an ideal model to analyze the development and elongation of phalanges. We used a mouse model for BDB1 (Ror2 W749X/W749X ) lacking middle phalanges and show that a signaling center corresponding to the chick PFR exists in the mouse, which is diminished in BDB1 mice. This resulted in a strongly impaired elongation of the digit condensations due to reduced chondrogenic commitment of undifferentiated distal mesenchymal cells. We further show that a similar BMP-based mechanism accounts for digit shortening in a mouse model for the closely related condition BDA1 (Ihh E95K/E95K ), altogether indicating the functional significance of the PFR in mammals. Genetic interaction experiments as well as pathway analysis in BDB1 mice suggest that Indian hedgehog and WNT/β-catenin signaling, which we show is inhibited by receptor tyrosine kinase-like orphan receptor 2 (ROR2) in distal limb mesenchyme, are acting upstream of BMP signaling in the PFR. T he appendicular skeleton arises as a continuous cartilaginous condensation in the center of the limb bud that develops in a proximal to distal sequence. Distal outgrowth is under the control of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling from the apical ectodermal ridge (AER), which accounts for proliferation in the subridge mesenchyme and prevents premature differentiation of mesenchymal cells, thus maintaining a progenitor pool. Cells leaving the range of AER-FGF signaling undergo differentiation into the mesenchymal cell lineages of the limb bud (1, 2).Evidence from the chick indicates that bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)/pSMAD1/5/8 signaling in a population of cells in front of the growing condensation, referred to as the phalanxforming region (PFR) or digit crescent (3, 4), is involved in the elongation of the digital rays. This work suggests that the PFR acts as a signaling center to drive distal elongation of the digit and thus determines the number of phalanges via commitment of distal mesenchymal cells to the cartilage condensation. However, evidence for such a mechanism in the mouse or human is missing.If a PFR-like structure exists in mammals, its failure is expected to cause digit malformation phenotypes such as digit shortening and loss of phalanges. This phenotypic spectrum is typical for a family of human inheritable malformations, the brachydactylies (BDs), which are characterized by the absence or reduction of individual phalanges and/or metacarpals (5). Intriguingly, several mutations causing human BDs (BDA2, BDB2, and BDC) affect the BMP pathway (5), which suggests the involvement of a PFRlike structure in digit growth.BD types A1 and B1...

SignificanceWe recently reported that activin type II receptors (ActRIIs) blockade using bimagrumab could positively impact muscle wasting in mice and humans. However, the specific role of each individual ActRII at regulating adult muscle mass had not been clarified. Here, we highlight the importance of concomitant neutralization of both ActRIIs in controlling muscle mass. Through comparison with single specificity antibodies, we uncover unique features related to bimagrumab and its neutralizing interactions with both ActRIIA and ActRIIB at the structural and cellular levels and in vivo in adult mice. The need for simultaneous engagement and neutralization of both ActRIIs to generate a strong skeletal muscle response confers unique therapeutic potential to bimagrumab, in the context of muscle wasting conditions.

Individuals with the birth defect synpolydactyly (SPD) have 1 or more digit duplicated and 2 or more digits fused together. One form of SPD is caused by polyalanine expansions in homeobox d13 (Hoxd13). Here we have used the naturally occurring mouse mutant that has the same mutation, the SPD homolog (Spdh) allele, and a similar phenotype, to investigate the molecular pathogenesis of SPD. A transgenic approach and crossing experiments showed that the Spdh allele is a combination of loss and gain of function. Here we identify retinaldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (Raldh2), the rate-limiting enzyme for retinoic acid (RA) synthesis in the limb, as a direct Hoxd13 target and show decreased RA production in limbs from Spdh/Spdh mice. Intrauterine treatment with RA restored pentadactyly in Spdh/Spdh mice. We further show that RA and WT Hoxd13 suppress chondrogenesis in mesenchymal progenitor cells, whereas Hoxd13 encoded by Spdh promotes cartilage formation in primary cells isolated from Spdh/Spdh limbs, and that this was associated with increased expression of Sox6/9. Increased Sox9 expression and ectopic cartilage formation in the interdigital mesenchyme of limbs from Spdh/Spdh mice suggest uncontrolled differentiation of these cells into the chondrocytic lineage. Thus, we propose that mutated Hoxd13 causes polydactyly in SPD by inducing extraneous interdigital chondrogenesis, both directly and indirectly, via a reduction in RA levels.

Dishevelled (Dvl) is a multifunctional effector of different Wnt cascades. Both canonical Wnt3a and noncanonical Wnt5a stimulate casein-kinase-1 (CK1) -mediated phosphorylation of Dvl, visualized as electrophoretic mobility shift [phosphorylated and shifted Dvl (ps-Dvl)]. However, the role of this phosphorylation remains obscure. Here we report the functional interaction of ps-Dvl with the receptor tyrosine kinase Ror2, which is an alternative Wnt receptor and is able to inhibit canonical Wnt signaling. We demonstrate interaction between Ror2 and ps-Dvl at the cell membrane after Wnt3a or Wnt5a stimulus dependent on CK1. Ps-Dvl interacts with the C-terminal proline-serine-threonine-rich domain of Ror2, which is required for efficient inhibition of canonical Wnt signaling. We further show that the Dvl C terminus, which seems to be exposed in ps-Dvl and efficiently binds Ror2, is an intrinsic negative regulator of the canonical Wnt pathway downstream of beta-catenin. The Dvl C terminus is necessary and sufficient to inhibit canonical Wnt/beta-catenin signaling, which is dependent on the presence of Ror2. Furthermore, both the Dvl C terminus and CK1epsilon can inhibit the Wnt5a/Ror2/ATF2 pathway in mammalian cells and Xenopus explant cultures. This suggests that phosphorylation of Dvl triggers negative feedback regulation for different branches of Wnt signaling in a Ror2-dependent manner.

Mutations in ROR2 result in a spectrum of genetic disorders in humans that are classified, depending on the nature of the mutation and the clinical phenotype, as either autosomal dominant brachydactyly type B (BDB, MIM 113000) or recessive Robinow syndrome (RRS, MIM 268310). In an attempt to model BDB in mice, the mutation W749X was engineered into the mouse Ror2 gene. In contrast to the human situation, mice heterozygous for Ror2 W749FLAG are normal and do not develop brachydactyly, whereas homozygous mice exhibit features resembling RRS. Furthermore, both Ror2 W749FLAG/W749FLAG and a previously engineered mutant, Ror2 TMlacZ/TMlacZ , lack the P2/P3 joint. Absence of Gdf5 expression at the corresponding interzone suggests that the defect is in specification of the joint. As this phenotype is absent in mice lacking the entire Ror2 gene, it appears that specification of the P2/P3 joint is affected by ROR2 activity. Finally, Ror2 W749FLAG/W749FLAG mice survive to adulthood and exhibit phenotypes (altered body composition, reduced male fertility) not observed in Ror2 knockout mice, presumably due to the perinatal lethality of the latter. Therefore, Ror2 W749FLAG/W749FLAG mice represent a postnatal model for RRS, provide insight into the mechanism of joint specification, and uncover novel roles of Ror2 in the mouse.

Mutations in ROR2 cause dominant brachydactyly type B (BDB1) or recessive Robinow syndrome (RRS), each characterized by a distinct combination of phenotypic features. We here report a novel nonsense mutation in ROR2 (c.1324C>T; p.R441X) causing intracellular protein truncation in a patient exhibiting features of RRS in conjunction with severe recessive brachydactyly. The mutation is located at the same position as a previously described frame shift mutation causing dominant BDB1. To investigate the apparent discrepancy in phenotypic outcome, we analysed ROR2 protein stability and distribution in stably transfected cell lines expressing exact copies of several human RRS and BDB1 intracellular mutations. RRS mutant proteins were less abundant and retained intracellularly, although BDB1 mutants were stable and predominantly located at the cell membrane. The p.R441X mutation showed an intermediate pattern with membrane localization but also high endoplasmic reticulum retention. Furthermore, we observed a correlation between the severity of BDB1, the location of the mutation, and the amount of membrane-associated ROR2. Membrane protein fraction quantification revealed a gradient of distribution and stability correlating with the clinical phenotypes. This gradual model was confirmed by crossing mouse models for RRS and BDB1, yielding double heterozygous animals that exhibited an intermediate phenotype. We propose a model in which the RRS versus the BDB1 phenotype is determined by the relative degree of protein retention/degradation and the amount of mutant protein reaching the plasma membrane.