Long-term potentiation in the spinal dorsal horn requires peptidergic C-fibre activation in animals. Perceptual correlates of long-term potentiation following high-frequency electrical stimulation in humans include increased sensitivity to electrical stimuli at the high frequency stimulation site (homotopic pain-long-term potentiation) and increased sensitivity to pinprick surrounding the high frequency stimulation site (heterotopic pain-long-term potentiation, equivalent to secondary hyperalgaesia). To characterize the peripheral fibre populations involved in induction of pain-long-term potentiation, we performed two selective nerve block experiments in 30 healthy male volunteers. Functional blockade of TRPV1-positive nociceptors by high-concentration capsaicin (verified by loss of heat pain) significantly reduced pain ratings to high frequency stimulation by 47% (P < 0.001), homotopic pain-long-term potentiation by 71% (P < 0.01), heterotopic pain-long-term potentiation by 92% (P < 0.001) and the area of secondary hyperalgesia by 76% (P < 0.001). The selective blockade of A-fibre conduction by nerve compression (verified by loss of first pain to pinprick) significantly reduced pain ratings to high frequency stimulation by 37% (P < 0.01), but not homotopic pain-long-term potentiation (-5%). It had a marginal effect on heterotopic pain-long-term potentiation (-35%, P = 0.059), while the area of secondary hyperalgesia remained unchanged (-2%, P = 0.88). In conclusion, all nociceptor subclasses contribute to high frequency stimulation-induced pain (with a relative contribution of C > Aδ fibres, and an equal contribution of TRPV1-positive and TRPV1-negative fibres). TRPV1-positive C-fibres are the main inducers of both homotopic and heterotopic pain-long-term potentiation. TRPV1-positive A-fibres contribute substantially to the induction of heterotopic pain-long-term potentiation. TRPV1-negative C-fibres induce a component of homotopic self-facilitation but not heterotopic pain-long-term potentiation. TRPV1-negative A-fibres are the main afferents mediating pinprick pain and hyperalgesia, however, they do not appear to contribute to the induction of pain-long-term potentiation. These findings show that distinct peripheral fibre classes mediate induction of long-term potentiation-like pain amplification, its spatial spread to adjacent skin (i.e. secondary hyperalgesia), and the resulting enhanced sensitivity to pinprick in humans. Nociceptive afferents that induce pain amplification can be readily dissociated from those mediating pain. These findings add substantially to our understanding of the mechanisms of pain amplification, that form the basis for understanding the mechanisms of hyperalgesia encountered in patients.See Sandkühler (doi:10.1093/brain/awv193) for a scientific commentary on this article.

As an indirect approach to relate previously identified sensory phenotypes of patients suffering from peripheral neuropathic pain to underlying mechanisms, we used a published sorting algorithm to estimate the prevalence of denervation, peripheral and central sensitization in 657 healthy subjects undergoing experimental models of nerve block (NB) (compression block and topical lidocaine), primary hyperalgesia (PH) (sunburn and topical capsaicin), or secondary hyperalgesia (intradermal capsaicin and electrical high-frequency stimulation), and in 902 patients suffering from neuropathic pain. Some of the data have been previously published. Randomized split-half analysis verified a good concordance with a priori mechanistic sensory profile assignment in the training (79%, Cohen κ = 0.54, n = 265) and the test set (81%, Cohen κ = 0.56, n = 279). Nerve blocks were characterized by pronounced thermal and mechanical sensory loss, but also mild pinprick hyperalgesia and paradoxical heat sensations. Primary hyperalgesia was characterized by pronounced gain for heat, pressure and pinprick pain, and mild thermal sensory loss. Secondary hyperalgesia was characterized by pronounced pinprick hyperalgesia and mild thermal sensory loss. Topical lidocaine plus topical capsaicin induced a combined phenotype of NB plus PH. Topical menthol was the only model with significant cold hyperalgesia. Sorting of the 902 patients into these mechanistic phenotypes led to a similar distribution as the original heuristic clustering (65% identity, Cohen κ = 0.44), but the denervation phenotype was more frequent than in heuristic clustering. These data suggest that sorting according to human surrogate models may be useful for mechanism-based stratification of neuropathic pain patients for future clinical trials, as encouraged by the European Medicines Agency.