Ascites is a common complication of cirrhosis, and heralds a new phase of hepatic decompensation in the progression of the cirrhotic process. The development of ascites carries a significant worsening of the prognosis. It is important to diagnose noncirrhotic causes of ascites such as malignancy, tuberculosis, and pancreatic ascites since these occur with increased frequency in patients with liver disease. The International Ascites Club, representing the spectrum of clinical practice from North America to Europe, have developed guidelines by consensus in the management of cirrhotic ascites from the early ascitic stage to the stage of refractory ascites. Mild to moderate ascites should be managed by modest salt restriction and diuretic therapy with spironolactone or an equivalent in the first instance. Diuretics should be added in a stepwise fashion while maintaining sodium restriction. Gross ascites should be treated with therapeutic paracentesis followed by colloid volume expansion, and diuretic therapy. Refractory ascites is managed by repeated large volume paracentesis or insertion of a transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic stent shunt (TIPS). Successful placement of TIPS results in improved renal function, sodium excretion, and general well-being of the patient but without proven survival benefits. Clinicians caring for these patients should be aware of the potential complications of each treatment modality and be prepared to discontinue diuretics or not proceed with TIPS placement should complications or contraindications develop. Liver transplantation should be considered for all ascitic patients, and this should preferably be performed prior to the development of renal dysfunction to prevent further compromise of their prognosis. (HEPATOLOGY 2003;38:258-266.)

Background Infections worsen survival in cirrhosis; however, simple predictors of survival in infection-related acute-on-chronic liver failure (I-ACLF) derived from multi-center studies are required in order to improve prognostication and resource allocation. Methods Using the NACSELD database, data from 18 centers were collected for survival analysis of prospectively enrolled cirrhotic patients hospitalized with an infection. We defined organ failures as (i) shock, (ii) grade III/IV hepatic encephalopathy(HE), (iii) need for dialysis (iv) mechanical ventilation. Determinants of survival with these organ failures were analyzed. Results 507 patients were included (55 yrs, 52% HCV, 15.8% nosocomial infection, 96% Child score≥7) and 30-day evaluations were available in 453 patients. Urinary tract infection (UTI) (28.5%), and spontaneous bacterial peritonitis (SBP) (22.5%) were most prevalent. During hospitalization, 55.7% developed HE, 17.6% shock, 15.1% required renal replacement, and 15.8% needed ventilation; 23% died within 30-days and 21.6% developed second infections. Admitted patients developed none (38.4%), one (37.3%), two (10.4%), three (10%) or four (4%) organ failures. 30-day survival worsened with higher number of extra-hepatic organ failures, none (92%), one (72.6%), two (51.3%), three (36%) and all four (23%). I-ACLF was defined as ≥2 organ failures given the significant change in survival probability associated at this cutoff. Baseline independent predictors for development of ACLF were nosocomial infections, MELD score, low mean arterial pressure (MAP), and non-SBP infections. Independent predictors of poor 30-day survival were I-ACLF, second infections, and admission values of high MELD, low MAP, high white blood count and low albumin. In conclusion, using multi-center study data in hospitalized decompensated infected cirrhotic patients, I-ACLF defined by the presence of two or more organ failures using simple definitions is predictive of poor survival.

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Although infection status remains an important predictor of death, NACSELD-ACLF was independently validated in a separate large multinational prospective cohort as a simple, reliable bedside tool to predict 30-day survival in both infected and uninfected patients hospitalized with a diagnosis of cirrhosis. (Hepatology 2018;67:2367-2374).

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Minor increases in serum creatinine are clinically relevant and can adversely affect survival. Every effort should be made to avoid precipitation of AKI in cirrhosis and ascites.

IntroductionRenal dysfunction is a common complication in patients with end-stage cirrhosis. Since the original publication of the definition and diagnostic criteria for the hepatorenal syndrome (HRS), there have been major advances in our understanding of its pathogenesis. The prognosis of patients with cirrhosis who develop HRS remains poor, with a median survival without liver transplantation of less than six months. However, a number of pharmacological and other therapeutic strategies have now become available which offer the ability to prevent or treat renal dysfunction more effectively in this setting. Accordingly, we sought to review the available evidence, make recommendations and delineate key questions for future studies.MethodsWe undertook a systematic review of the literature using Medline, PubMed and Web of Science, data provided by the Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients and the bibliographies of key reviews. We determined a list of key questions and convened a two-day consensus conference to develop summary statements via a series of alternating breakout and plenary sessions. In these sessions, we identified supporting evidence and generated recommendations and/or directions for future research.ResultsOf the 30 questions considered, we found inadequate evidence for the majority of questions and our recommendations were mainly based on expert opinion. There was insufficient evidence to grade three questions, but we were able to develop a consensus definition for acute kidney injury in patients with cirrhosis and provide consensus recommendations for future investigations to address key areas of uncertainty.ConclusionsDespite a paucity of sufficiently powered prospectively randomized trials, we were able to establish an evidence-based appraisal of this field and develop a set of consensus recommendations to standardize care and direct further research for patients with cirrhosis and renal dysfunction.